奖赏刺激的脑电反应特征跨文化差异:一个ERP研究

本研究从文化--社会神经科学的角度出发,采用事件相关电位的方法来探究不同文化背景下的个体对具有进化和社会文化代表性的正性刺激—奖赏刺激的脑电反应特征是否具有差异。本研究采用the Door Task实验范式考察了26名中国人和24名高加索白人对不同反馈反应的脑电特征跨文化差异。结果显示,负性反馈条件下诱发的FRN平均波幅比正性反馈条件诱发的平均脑电波幅更负,这种正负反馈的波幅差异只在中国被试中有体现。在P3成分上,在正性反馈条件下,中国被试诱发的脑电波幅大于西方被试,负性反馈条件下,两组无显著差异。研究结果表明,相对于西方被试,中国被试对奖赏反馈刺激可能具有较高的敏感性。这说明中西方文化下的个体对正负性反馈刺激的加工的脑电反应特征存在显著的差异。     

预期背离下奖励与惩罚的ERPs研究

采用Flanker范式,通过事件相关电位(ERPs)技术,探讨预期背离情境下的脑电反应及与敏感性个体的关系。选取17名被试,采取2×2组内设计刺激类型（奖励vs.惩罚）和预期受挫（是vs.否）;结果表明（1）预期受挫情境引发更高的FRN;（2）惩罚刺激引发更高的FRN,奖励刺激引发更高的P3;（3）惩罚敏感与惩罚、无奖励情境引发FRN相关。本实验结果表明（1）FRN既反应对反馈效价的加工,也可能是预期背离的一种表现;（2）无奖励刺激受惩罚系统调节;无惩罚刺激受奖励系统调节。     

测谎中反馈加工的认知神经机制：一项ERP研究

在一个模拟“杀人——侦探”游戏情境中,被试先完成模拟杀人任务,在随后的测谎阶段使用有反馈的ERP测谎范式,以反馈的形式告知被试测谎结果（“+0.5”或“-2”,分别代表“撒谎逃过检测”或“撒谎被发现”）时的脑内时程动态变化。结果发现,在反馈出现后的200～300ms时间段,表示“撒谎被抓住”比“撒谎逃过检测”的反馈信息诱发了一个更正性的ERP成分（P200-300）,在300～400ms时间段,两种反馈诱发的ERP成分（P300）没有差异,而在450～500ms时间段, “撒谎逃过检测”比“撒谎被抓住”的反馈信息诱发了一个更负性的ERP成分（N500）,负性反馈没有诱发FRN。这些结果表明：P200-300、P300和N500都是与加工测谎结果信息有关的ERP成分。P200-300可能对测谎结果的效价（正性或负性）敏感;P300可能反映被试对测谎结果主观意义大小的评价;而N500可能反映测谎结果所导致的大脑皮层兴奋程度。     

反馈相关负波与成瘾

反馈相关负波(feedback-related negativity, FRN)是反馈加工诱发的脑电成分, 体现了个体对奖赏的敏感性。成瘾分为物质成瘾和行为成瘾, 两类个体的反馈加工都呈现病理性模式。相对于普通反馈物(如金钱), 物质成瘾个体在加工成瘾物质时诱发的FRN波幅显著增大; 在与非成瘾被试的对照研究中, 物质成瘾者加工金钱反馈时的FRN也表现出与成瘾相关的异常模式; 在行为成瘾个体中亦观察到与物质成瘾个体类似的FRN失调现象。但以往多数研究中对成瘾类型的区分还不够详细, 未来研究应进一步考虑成瘾不同亚型的特点; 且成瘾个体往往伴随其他精神障碍(如抑郁、焦虑), 将来的研究要区分共病因素的影响, 揭示成瘾独特的奖赏加工机制问题。     

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Event-Related Potentials: Evidence for Deficits in Allocating Attentional Resources to Relevant Stimuli

Current research on the nature of attentional deficits in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is reviewed with a focus on studies using event-related potentials (ERPs). A robust effect is the smaller amplitude of the P3 wave to both auditory and visual stimuli for individuals with ADHD than for normal controls. This effect is indicative of deficits in the allocation of attentional resources to task-relevant information. The Nd wave is also smaller for individuals with ADHD, an effect that suggests impairments in the discrimination and preferential processing of task-relevant information, rather than distractibility by irrelevant stimuli. Studies of the effects of methylphenidate on ERPs in ADHD indicate that this stimulant enhances the quality of stimulus evaluation and speeds response time. These specific effects support the view that ADHD involves deficits in energetic processes that are required for processing task-relevant stimuli.     

自主欺骗决策过程与结果评价的ERPs研究

本研究基于事件相关电位技术,以32名大学生为研究对象,采用2(诱发条件：高奖赏、低奖赏)×3(反馈类型：欺骗成功、欺骗失败、诚实)的组内实验设计,以点判断任务操控被试的自主欺骗水平,并结合欺骗及时反馈范式来操纵被试的结果评价。结果发现：(1)在决策过程,做出欺骗决策比诚实决策诱发更大波幅的P300;(2)在结果评价过程,相比欺骗成功反馈和诚实反馈,欺骗失败反馈诱发更负的FRN波幅。结果显示个体做出欺骗决策比诚实决策需要更多的注意资源参与和心理努力,并且对欺骗失败反馈的敏感度远高于欺骗成功反馈和诚实反馈。这一定程度上揭示了个体做出欺骗决策和面对欺骗结果时的心理和神经机制,为教育者采取必要措施来降低和预防青少年欺骗行为奠定了研究基础。     

Frontal cortex electrophysiology in reward- and punishment-related feedback processing during advice-guided decision making: An interleaved EEG-DC stimulation study

During decision making, individuals are prone to rely on external cues such as expert advice when the outcome is not known. However, the electrophysiological correlates associated with outcome uncertainty and the use of expert advice are not completely understood. The feedback-related negativity (FRN), P3a, and P3b are event-related brain potentials (ERPs) linked to dissociable stages of feedback and attentional processing during decision making. Even though these ERPs are influenced by both reward- and punishment-related feedback, it remains unclear how extrinsic information during uncertainty modulates these brain potentials. In this study, the effects of advice cues on decision making were investigated in two separate experiments. In the first experiment, electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded in healthy volunteers during a decision-making task in which the participants received reward or punishment feedback preceded by novice, amateur, or expert advice. The results showed that the P3a component was significantly influenced by the subjective predictive value of an advice cue, whereas the FRN and P3b were unaffected by the advice cues. In the second, sham-controlled experiment, cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (ctDCS) was administered in conjunction with EEG in order to explore the direct contributions of the frontal cortex to these brain potentials. Results showed no significant change in either advice-following behavior or decision times. However, ctDCS did decrease FRN amplitudes as compared to sham, with no effect on the P3a or P3b. Together, these findings suggest that advice information may act primarily on attention allocation during feedback processing, whereas the electrophysiological correlates of the detection and updating of internal prediction models are not affected.     

社会比较对合作任务结果评价的影响：来自ERP的证据

现实生活中人们通过社会比较获得对自身的认识。前人研究探讨了金钱收入的比较对个体结果评价的影响, 而非金钱的社会比较效应的神经加工机制尚不清楚。本研究分离比较和金钱收入, 使用双人合作的投骰子任务, 先呈现“>”或“<”代表两人点数大小的比较结果, 再呈现合作任务的输赢结果, 考察非金钱的社会比较对合作任务结果加工的影响, 记录任务表现的比较结果和最终合作任务结果的ERP数据。发现在任务表现比较结果阶段, FRN和P300对代表行为表现好坏的社会比较信息敏感, 呈现无金钱输赢提示的点数大小的比较结果时, 点数小于他人比大于他人诱发更大的FRN和更小的P300; 任务表现的比较结果对合作任务最终的金钱输赢结果的影响并没有反应在FRN上。这些表明, 对非金钱的社会比较信息的加工始于结果快速评价的早期阶段。     

Differential effects of social and non‐social reward on response inhibition in children and adolescents

An important issue in the field of clinical and developmental psychopathology is whether cognitive control processes, such as response inhibition, can be specifically enhanced by motivation. To determine whether non‐social (i.e. monetary) and social (i.e. positive facial expressions) rewards are able to differentially improve response inhibition accuracy in typically developing children and adolescents, an ‘incentive’ go/no‐go task was applied with reward contingencies for successful inhibition. In addition, the impact of children's personality traits (such as reward seeking and empathy) on monetary and social reward responsiveness was assessed in 65 boys, ages 8 to 12 years. All subjects were tested twice: At baseline, inhibitory control was assessed without reward, and then subjects were pseudorandomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions, including (1) social reward only, (2) monetary reward only, (3) mixed social and monetary reward, or (4) a retest condition without reward. Both social and non‐social reward significantly improved task performance, although larger effects were observed for monetary reward. The higher the children scored on reward seeking scales, the larger was their improvement in response inhibition, but only if monetary reward was used. In addition, there was a tendency for an association between empathic skills and benefits from social reward. These data suggest that social incentives do not have an equally strong reinforcing value as compared to financial incentives. However, different personality traits seem to determine to what extent a child profits from different types of reward. Clinical implications regarding probable hyposensitivity to social reward in subjects with autism and dysregulated reward‐seeking behaviour in children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are discussed.     

奖赏预期对面孔情绪加工的影响：一项事件相关电位研究

采用事件相关电位(ERPs)技术考察了奖赏预期对人类面孔情绪识别的影响。实验采用线索-目标范式, 分别记录了被试在奖赏预期条件下以及无奖赏预期条件下对正性、中性和负性面孔进行情绪辨别任务的ERP数据。行为结果显示, 被试在奖赏预期条件下的反应时快于无奖赏预期条件下的反应时, 对情绪面孔的反应时快于对中性面孔的反应时。ERPs数据显示, 奖赏线索比无奖赏线索诱发了更正的P1、P2和P300成分。目标刺激诱发的P1、N170波幅以及N300均受到奖赏预期的调节, 在奖赏预期条件下目标诱发了更正的ERPs。P1、N170、VPP等成分没有受到面孔情绪的影响, 而额中央位置的N300波幅显示情绪(正性与负性)面孔与中性面孔加工的差异。重要的是, N300波幅出现奖赏预期与情绪的交互作用, 正、负情绪加工效应以及负性偏向效应受奖赏预期的差异性影响。正性情绪加工效应不受奖赏预期的影响, 而负性情绪加工效应和负性偏向效应在奖赏预期条件下显著大于无奖赏预期条件下。这些结果说明, 奖赏预期能够调节对面孔情绪的加工, 且不同加工进程中奖赏对情绪加工的调节作用不同。动机性信息调节注意资源的分配, 促进了个体在加工面孔情绪时的负性偏向。     

反馈负波及其近10年理论解释

个体决策后的反馈对随后的结果监控和行为调整起着至关重要的作用。事件相关脑电位研究发现, 反馈负波(feedback-related negativity, FRN)是与决策后反馈加工过程紧密相关的脑电成分。近10年来关于FRN的理论解释, 在最初经典的强化学习理论和情绪动机假说的基础上又提出了反应-结果的预测模型、奖赏正波理论以及积极情绪启动模型。未来的研究应该立足于大样本, 采用互补的研究手段和多样的分析技术来探讨FRN的心理意义; 同时考虑将FRN作为奖赏加工的脑电指标, 研究社会互动情境下的人类行为。     

Empathy and feedback processing in active and observational learning

The feedback-related negativity (FRN) and the P300 have been related to the processing of one’s own and other individuals’ feedback during both active and observational learning. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the role of trait-empathic responding with regard to the modulation of the neural correlates of observational learning in particular. Thirty-four healthy participants completed an active and an observational learning task. On both tasks, the participants’ aim was to maximize their monetary gain by choosing from two stimuli the one that showed the higher probability of reward. Participants gained insight into the stimulus–reward contingencies according to monetary feedback presented after they had made an active choice or by observing the choices of a virtual partner. Participants showed a general improvement in learning performance on both learning tasks. P200, FRN, and P300 amplitudes were larger during active, as compared with observational, learning. Furthermore, nonreward elicited a significantly more negative FRN than did reward in the active learning task, while only a trend was observed for observational learning. Distinct subcomponents of trait cognitive empathy were related to poorer performance and smaller P300 amplitudes for observational learning only. Taken together, both the learning performance and event-related potentials during observational learning are affected by different aspects of trait cognitive empathy, and certain types of observational learning may actually be disrupted by a higher tendency to understand and adopt other people’s perspectives.     

Sex differences in the neural underpinnings of social and monetary incentive processing during adolescence

The brain’s reward system undergoes major changes during adolescence, and an increased reactivity to social and nonsocial incentives has been described as a typical feature during this transitional period. Little is known whether there are sex differences in the brain’s responsiveness to social or monetary incentives during adolescence. The aim of this event-related potential (ERP) study was to compare the neurophysiological underpinnings of monetary and social incentive processing in adolescent boys versus girls. During ERP recording, 38 adolescents (21 females, 17 males; 13–18 years) completed an incentive delay task comprising (a) a reward versus punishment condition and (b) social versus monetary incentives. The stimulus-preceding negativity (SPN) was recorded during anticipation of reward and punishment, and the feedback P3 (fP3) along with the feedback-related negativity (FRN) after reward/punishment delivery. During anticipation of social punishment, adolescent boys compared with girls exhibited a reduced SPN. After delivery, male adolescents exhibited higher fP3 amplitudes to monetary compared with social incentives, whereas fP3 amplitudes in girls were comparable across incentive types. Moreover, whereas in boys fP3 responses were higher in rewards than in punishment trials, no such difference was evident in girls. The results indicate that adolescent boys show a reduced neural responsivity in the prospect of social punishment. Moreover, the findings imply that, once the incentive is obtained, adolescent boys attribute a relatively enhanced motivational significance to monetary incentives and show a relative hyposensitivity to punishment. The findings might contribute to our understanding of sex-specific vulnerabilities to problem behaviors related to incentive processing during adolescence.     

人际合作与冲突影响博弈决策的结果评价

人际合作与冲突是人际互动的两种主要形式, 在人类社会的发展中有着重要作用。脑成像研究表明, 当个体和人类同伴进行博弈时, 选择合作与选择冲突激活脑区的强度有所不同。但目前尚不清楚, 人际合作与冲突如何影响决策选择之后的结果评价过程。本研究采用Chicken Game任务对此问题进行了探讨, 研究记录了22名健康成人被试与人类同伴进行Chicken Game任务时的脑电活动。结果表明, 反馈负波(FRN)和P300不仅受到结果效价的影响, 同时也受到人际合作与冲突的影响。相对于选择冲突, 个体选择合作时, 输钱和赢钱反馈引发的FRN以及P300波幅差异更大。相关分析表明, RA (被试和解对方进攻)反馈引发的FRN波幅与接受该反馈后下一个trials中和解的选择率(以及总的和解率)呈显著的负相关。上述结果表明, 在社会博弈中, 合作增加了个体对博弈结果的预期, 从而引发更大的FRN效应; 并且合作共赢的结果所具有的物质意义与社会意义, 使其诱发更大的P300波幅。     

Elevated outcome-anticipation and outcome-evaluation ERPs associated with a greater preference for larger-but-delayed rewards

Although waiting for a reward reduces or discounts its value, some people have a stronger tendency to wait for larger rewards and forgo smaller-but-immediate rewards. This ability to delay gratification is captured by individual differences in so-called intertemporal choices in which individuals are asked to choose between larger-but-delayed versus smaller-but-immediate rewards. The current study used event-related potentials (ERPs) to examine whether enhancement in two neurocognitive processes, outcome anticipation and outcome evaluation, modulate individual variability in intertemporal responses. After completing a behavioral intertemporal choice task, 34 participants performed an ERP gambling task. From this ERP task, we separately examined individual differences in outcome anticipation (stimulus-preceding negativity; SPN), early outcome valuation (feedback-related negativity; FRN), and late outcome evaluation (P3). We observed that both elevated outcome-anticipation (SPN) and late outcome-evaluation (P3) neural processes predicted a stronger preference toward larger-but-delayed rewards. No relationship was observed between intertemporal responses and early outcome evaluation (FRN), indicating that the relationship between outcome evaluation and intertemporal responses was specific to the late outcome-evaluation processing stream. Moreover, multiple regression analyses indicated that the SPN and P3 independently modulate individual differences in intertemporal responses, suggesting separate mechanisms underlie the relationship between these two neurocognitive processes and intertemporal responses. Accordingly, we identify two potential neurocognitive modulators of individual variability in intertemporal responses. We discuss the mechanisms underlying these modulators in terms of anticipation-related processing (SPN) and a saliency bias toward gain (compared to loss) outcomes (P3).     

Temporal discounting of monetary rewards in children and adolescents with ADHD and autism spectrum disorders

It has been difficult to differentiate attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in terms of some aspects of their cognitive profile. While both show deficits in executive functions, it has been suggested that they may differ in their response to monetary reward. For instance, children with ADHD prefer small immediate over large delayed rewards more than typically developing controls. One explanation for this is that they discount the value of rewards to a higher degree as they are moved into the future. The current study investigated whether children with ADHD can be differentiated from those with ASD in terms of reward discounting. Thirty‐nine children (8–16 y) with ADHD, 34 children with ASD and 46 typically developing controls performed a hypothetical monetary temporal discounting task. Participants were instructed to make repeated choices between small variable rewards (0, 5, 10, 20, 30€) delivered immediately and large rewards delivered after a variable delay. Children with ADHD but not ASD discounted future rewards at a higher rate than typically developing controls. These data confirm steeper discounting of future rewards in ADHD and add to a small but growing literature showing that the psychological profile of ADHD can be distinguished from that of ASD in terms of disrupted motivational processes.     

物质成瘾人群金钱奖赏加工的异常机制及可恢复性

长期的成瘾物质使用造成奖赏系统的变化是成瘾过程发展和维持的关键, 这种病理性变化反过来会对奖赏系统的调节功能产生不利的影响, 引起认知表现和日常功能方面的障碍。近年来大量的功能性核磁共振成像研究表明物质成瘾人群的金钱奖赏加工相关的腹侧纹状体及其它奖赏脑区激活存在异常。而奖赏加工相关的纹状体激活可以作为治疗效果的预测器和临床恢复的指标; 这种奖赏加工异常可以通过戒断有所恢复。今后的研究需要进一步补充奖赏加工的事件相关电位研究, 研究物质成瘾人群奖赏加工的特异性, 并增加对家庭物质依赖史个体的奖赏加工研究, 以及奖赏与执行功能的交互作用机制的研究。     

Institutionalized Intolerance of ADHD: Sources and Consequences

Diagnosable individuals, caregivers, and clinicians typically embrace a biological conception of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), finding that medical treatment is beneficial. Scientists study ADHD phenomenology, interventions to ease symptoms, and underlying mechanisms, often with an aim of helping diagnosed people. Yet current understanding of ADHD, jointly influenced by science and society, has an unintended downside. Scientific and social influences have embedded negative values in the ADHD concept, and have simultaneously dichotomized ADHD‐diagnosable from non‐diagnosable individuals. In social settings insistent on certain types of success, the negative values associated with the diagnostic category are attributed to people in the dichotomized “ADHD” group. Devaluation, institutional restrictions on “success” definitions and endpoints, and limited options for achieving success jointly constitute institutionalized intolerance of ADHD.     

反馈相关负波与社会关系认知

反馈相关负波(feedback-related negativity, FRN)是人类进行结果评价时诱发的一个重要的脑电负成分, 出现在反馈刺激后200~300ms间。作为社会认知研究的可视化指标和工具, 它在社会关系认知中有着十分重要的作用。研究从社会关系与反映并表征社会关系的社会规范两方面阐述了反馈相关负波在社会关系认知中的作用。前者着重阐述了反馈相关负波在作为独立个体所扮演的社会角色和人际关系中的作用, 后者主要介绍了反馈相关负波在分配公平和责任规范中的作用。未来研究需进一步联合其他脑电成分(如P300), 采用更严密的实验设计和研究范式来探讨不同人际亲密度个体在责任分摊过程中的认知神经过程及其在独立担责情况下责任绝对额度对其结果评价和社会关系认知的影响。     

Stimulus-response incompatibility effects on event-related potentials in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

In order to test the hypothesis of a response choice deficit in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) children, event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded from 30 scalp electrodes in 21 ADHD and 21 normal boys during a spatial stimulus-response compatibility (SRC) task. ADHD children made fewer correct responses than control children, but did not show a larger incompatibility effect on response speed and accuracy. In ERPs, ADHD children had longer N1 latency and larger condition effect on the frontal N2, which would reflect a greater frontal involvement for the correct responses. The ADHD group who performed the SRC task first showed a larger condition effect on an early occipital P3 only, while the ADHD group who performed the SRC task second showed a larger condition effect on a later central P650 component and on a late parietal NSW, as compared with normal controls. These results suggest strategic differences in information processing in ADHD children, rather than a specific deficit.