Effects of punishment on response latency in extraverts

Previous findings indicate that in comparison to introverts, extraverts are prone to form responses that are resistant to interruption by punishment. Because the tendency to stop and reflect following punishment may be crucial for subsequent learning, the present study was designed to examine differences between introverts' and extraverts' reactions to punishment using response latency on the trial following punishment as the dependent variable. Sixty-six extraverted and 66 introverted male undergraduates performed a pattern-matching task in which they received noncontingent 50% success and 50% failure feedback under three incentive conditions including reward only, punishment only, or both. As predicted, a significant interaction was found in the both condition, reflecting the tendency of extraverts to respond more quickly and introverts more slowly following punishment feedback than following reward feedback. No significant effects were found in the other two conditions; however, a tendency was noted for extraverts to respond more quickly overall when only reward was given. A second experiment using reward-only and punishment-only feedback replicated this finding and yielded a significant interaction of Group X Condition. The results indicate that in contrast to introverts, extraverts are activated by the availability of reward and, paradoxically, that punishment may facilitate rather than interrupt extraverts' reward seeking behavior.     

Reaction to punishment, reflectivity, and passive avoidance learning in extraverts

Passive avoidance learning occupies a central role in accounts of disinhibited behavior, ranging from psychopaths' persistent criminality (Hare 1970) to extraverts' gregariousness (Gray, 1972). To explore the mechanism underlying passive avoidance deficits, we assessed the relation of extraversion, neuroticism, and response latency after punishment to passive avoidance learning by using two successive go/no go discrimination tasks. The tasks were designed to examine two aspects of subjects' reactions to punishment: response speed on trials immediately following punishment (Experiment 1) and time to terminate punishment feedback between successive trials (i.e., reflectivity; Experiment 2). Consistent with previous findings, the results of Experiment 1 showed that extraverts commit more passive avoidance errors than introverts do (Newman, Widom, & Nathan, 1985) and fail to pause following punished errors (Nichols & Newman, 1986). In Experiment 2, only neurotic extraverts displayed this pattern of performance differences. In both experiments, longer pausing following punishment predicted better learning from punishment for both introverts and extraverts. These results suggest that, in the presence of salient cues for reward, extraverts' characteristic reaction to punishment interferes with processing punished errors and may contribute to their more general propensity for impulsive, nonreflective action.     

Incentive and feedback effects on target detection: A chronometric analysis of Gray's model of temperament

Chronometric (i.e. reaction time) techniques were used to investigate the response, arousal, and attentional components of Gray's (1971, 1982) model of temperament. Subjects were tested in a game context, where each trial consisted of an incentive warning signal (positive or negative), a visual detection target (left or right visual field), and a feedback signal (positive or negative). Several findings were consistent with Gray's proposal that extraverts tend to respond impulsively given signals of reward whereas introverts respond with inhibition given signals of punishment. Extraverts made more overall errors than introverts in the first experiment, and more errors following positive incentive signals in the second study. In addition, introverts responded more slowly than extraverts following negative feedback in the first study. Evidence was also found in support of Gray's proposal that introverts allocate more attention to negative cues than extraverts. Following negative feedback, introverts showed a reflexive attentional bias in favor of negative locations in the second experiment. However, no support was found for the temperamental differences in phasic arousal suggested by Gray's model. The magnitude and build up of general alerting effects following positive and negative incentives were similar for introverts and extraverts.     

Arithmetic achievement as a function of introversion-extraversion and teacher-presented reward and punishment

Following Eysenck (1967), Gray (1973) and Wakefield (1979), it was hypothesized that the arithmetic achievement of extraverts would be better than introverts in those classrooms in which teacher-presented rewards predominated, and the arithmetic achievement of introverts would be better than extraverts in those classrooms in which teacher-presented punishment predominated. Five classrooms were rank-ordered according to their ratios of teacher-presented reward to teacher-presented punishment. A total of 101 fourth and fifth grade students from the five classrooms were then administered the Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (JEPQ) and an arithmetic pretest. Subsequent to 40 school days, the students were administered the arithmetic posttest. Partialling out arithmetic pretest scores, lie scale scores from the JEPQ, and total arithmetic raw scores from the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS), regression analysis of arithmetic posttest scores with the interaction of extraversion scores from the JEPQ and classroom rank-order of the ratio of teacher-presented reward to teacher-presented punishment yielded significant results supporting the hypothesis. Additional analysis indicated the presence of non-hypothesized interactions of the Psychoticism and Neuroticism scales of the JEPQ with reward-punishment and extraversion.     

Extraversion-introversion and heat-stress tolerance

Ten Ss were tested under heat-stress conditions, during which their physiological stress was measured. Before commencement of the experiment, the Ss' level of extraversion was measured, as well as the meaning they assigned to the situation and the subjective probability of success they gave themselves. It was found that extraverts assigned significantly more positive meaning to the heat-stress situation than introverts, and they tended to estimate their probability of success as higher than did the introverts. However, extraverts tended to suffer from higher physiological stress than introverts, where the main cause for that seemed to be their higher expectations resulting from the positive meaning assigned by them to the heat-stress situation.     

Extraversion and the ability to decode nonverbal communication

This study examined the relationship between extraversion, as measured by the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), and skill at decoding nonverbal forms of communication. Prior research has had mixed success in establishing this relationship. Because extraverts have more experience in social settings than introverts, and because extraverts have a greater desire for sensory stimulation than introverts, it was hypothesized that extraverts would decode nonverbal cues in social interaction more accurately than introverts. The data supported this hypothesis. Extraverts were significantly more accurate in interpreting the meaning of nonverbal communication than introverts; in addition, extraverts were more confident that they were accurate decoders than introverts. The results are discussed in terms of cognitive processing style: the ‘extravert advantage’ in decoding nonverbal communication may be due to extraverts' superior attentive/perceptual skills; their superior interpretive/attributional skills; or both. In addition, the results are discussed in terms of methodological issues in the nonverbal decoding literature and their impact on research on extraversion. The nonverbal decoding task used in the present study differed from that of prior research by presenting scenes of natural, spontaneous, dyadic interactions for which an objective criterion for accuracy existed.     

Extraversion and sleep: A psychophysiological study of the arousal hypothesis

In order to examine Eysenck's (1967) hypothesis concerning the relationship between extraversion and arousal, autonomic measures were taken from introverts and extraverts immediately before sleep and during 6 hr of sleep. Introverts and extraverts did not differ in heart rate (HR) or skin-potential response rate (SPR) during the pre-sleep period. A variety of sleep-related measures of arousal provided no strong support for the hypothesis that introverts are more aroused than extraverts. The only consistent autonomic difference between introverts and extraverts during sleep was a tendency for introverts to have higher SPRs in the second 3 hr of the night. The results are discussed in terms of the level of environmental stimulation present in the experimental conditions, and suggestions are made for future sleep studies of the relationship between extraversion and arousal.     

Attention and personality in augmenting/reducing of visual evoked potentials

Earlier research has shown that extraverts tend to increase their visual evoked potential amplitudes with increasing light intensity (augmenting), while introverts reach their maximum amplitude at lower intensities (reducing). The evoked response has normally been measured from association areas of the brain (at the vertex). The present study measured VEP amplitudes over visual cortex and at the vertex, using four light intensities in two conditions, where attention was either directed towards the light stimuli, or away from them by a concurrent auditory task. Forty subjects were classified as extraverts or introverts based on the Eysenck Personality Inventory. The results show that attention interacted significantly with extraversion. Introverts exhibited a narrower focus of attention, while higher amplitudes and amplitude-intensity functions when attending to the light flashes and lower when distracted. Extraverts showed smaller differences between conditions, indicating a more evenly distributed attention. Higher arousal in introverts is the probable cause of their narrower focus of attention. There were marked differences in the distribution of activity between vertex and occipital cortex. Introverts showed relatively stronger occipital responses and extraverts stronger vertex responses across all intensities and in both conditions. The predisposition for mainly perceptual responses to aversive stimuli in introverts, and for general alerting and motor preparatory responses in extraverts, are interpreted as supportive of Brebner and Cooper's hypothesis that introverts are ‘geared to inspect’ and extraverts are ‘geared to respond’.     

Biological Bases of Extraversion Psychophysiological Evidence

There is a good deal of evidence, particularly from electrodermal and electrocortical recording procedures, that introverts exhibit greater reactivity to sensory stimulation than extraverts. There is little evidence that introverts and extraverts differ in base level of arousal in neutral conditions, and there is no clear evidence that their differences in sensitivity to stimulation are determined by differences in attentional state. Faster auditory brainstem evoked response latencies observed for introverts implicate differences in peripheral sensory processes that are not determined by mechanisms in the reticular system as proposed in the arousal hypothesis. There is also evidence that individual differences in the expression of motor activity between introverts and extraverts involve differences in motoneuronal excitability.     

Music while you work: the differential distraction of background music on the cognitive test performance of introverts and extraverts

The current study looked at the distracting effects of ‘pop music’ on introverts' and extraverts' performance on various cognitive tasks. It was predicted that there would be a main effect for music and an interaction effect with introverts performing less well in the presence of music than extraverts. Ten introverts and ten extraverts were given two tests (a memory test with immediate and delayed recall and a reading comprehension test), which were completed, either while being exposed to pop music, or in silence. The results showed that there was a detrimental effect on immediate recall on the memory test for both groups when music was played, and two of the three interactions were significant. After a 6-minute interval the introverts who had memorized the objects in the presence of the pop music had a significantly lower recall than the extraverts in the same condition and the introverts who had observed them in silence. The introverts who completed a reading comprehension task when music was being played also performed significantly less well than these two groups. These findings have implications for the study habits of introverts when needing to retain or process complex information. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Situational moderators of leader reward and punishment behaviors: fact or fiction?

One assumption shared by many contemporary models of leadership is that situational variables moderate the relationships between leader behaviors and subordinate responses. Recently, however, R. J. House and J. L. Baetz (1979 in B. Staw & L. Cummings, Eds., Research in Organizational Behavior (Vol. 1), Greenwich, Connecticut, JAI Press) have suggested that the effects of some leader traits and behaviors may be relatively invariant; that is, have the same effects in a variety of situations. One possible class of leader behaviors which may have relatively consistent effects across situations are those known as leader reward and punishment behaviors. The first goal of the research reported here was to increase our understanding of the relationships between leader contingent and noncontingent reward and punishment behaviors and subordinate responses. Contingent reward behavior was found to have the most pronounced relationships with subordinate performance and satisfaction, followed by noncontingent punishment behavior. Neither leader noncontingent reward nor contingent punishment behavior were found to be related to either subordinate performance or satisfaction, with the exception that noncontingent reward behavior was negatively related to subordinates' satisfaction with work. The second goal of the research was to examine the effects of a variety of potential moderators on the relationships between leader reward and punishment behaviors and subordinate responses. The results of this study suggest that the relationships between leader reward and punishment behaviors and subordinates' performance are relatively free of moderating effects.     

Do extraverts get more bang for the buck? Refining the affective-reactivity hypothesis of extraversion

One of the most robust observations in personality and emotion research is the finding that extraverts are happier than introverts. Some theorists have attributed this to differential reactivity of the brain reward system, which is central to many biologically inspired models of extraversion. This affective-reactivity hypothesis, which suggests that extraverts should be more susceptible to the induction of positive affect, has so far received very mixed empirical support. In this article, we consider a more biologically plausible account of extraverts' affective-reactivity. Over 5 experiments, we demonstrate that extraverts show greater affective-reactivity only in response to clearly appetitive stimuli and situations (e.g., where rewards are being pursued). Conversely, after merely pleasant stimuli and situations (without any reward-approach element), extraverts and introverts respond similarly. We also show that it is specifically activated affect (e.g., feelings of alertness), rather than pleasantly valenced affect (e.g., feelings of contentment), that characterizes the affective-reactivity of extraverts. Such reactions may potentially facilitate the reward-seeking behavior associated with extraversion, but they seem unlikely to explain the broadly happy disposition of extraverts.     

Passive avoidance in syndromes of disinhibition: psychopathy and extraversion

According to the physiological animal model proposed by Gorenstein and Newman (1980; see also Newman, Gorenstein, & Kelsey, 1983), psychopaths and extraverts may be characterized by a common psychological diathesis related to behavioral inhibition (see also Fowles, 1980; Gray, 1982). One aspect of this diathesis involves deficient passive avoidance learning, which has been central to explanations of "unsocialized" (e.g., Trasler, 1978) and antisocial behavior (e.g., Hare, 1970). Results from three experiments supported our prediction that psychopaths and extraverts would exhibit deficient passive avoidance relative to nonpsychopaths and introverts, respectively. In addition, the passive avoidance deficit was particularly evident in tasks that required subjects to inhibit a rewarded response in order to avoid punishment. The latter finding may be important for explaining the inconsistent results regarding passive avoidance learning in psychopaths (e.g., Chesno & Kilmann, 1975; Schmauk, 1970). Discussion of the results focuses on the importance of reward in mediating the passive avoidance deficit of "disinhibited" individuals and on the existence of an indirect relationship between psychopathy and extraversion: one that is consistent with the observed experimental parallels as well as with the more ambiguous evidence regarding a direct correlation between measures of the two syndromes.     

Actual and stereotyped speech tempos of extraverts and introverts

The study examined the actual speech tempos of extraverts and introverts and stereotyped notions about the tempos of extraverts and introverts. Forty-six female undergraduates were divided on the basis of the Eysenck Extraversion Scale into equal groups of extraverts and introverts. Each was asked to talk in a natural manner about $$ TAT pictures, to talk as if she were an extravert or an introvert, and to speak rapidly or slowly. The results indicate that the actual speech tempo of extraverts is faster than that of introverts and suggest that the stereotypes of the speech rates of extraverts and introverts somewhat exaggerate their actual rates.     

Stimulus- or response-induced excitation. A comparison of the behavior of introverts and extraverts

The tendency to inspect visual material (slides) rather than to respond by pressing a key in an attempt to move on to the next slide, was compared among introverts and extraverts. As predicted from Brebner and Cooper (1974): (1) extraverts inspected the stimuli for a shorter time before making their first response, (2) extraverts made more responses at a faster rate than introverts did, and (3) extraverts produced a significantly higher proportion of runs of accelerating responses.     

Reaction to punishment in extraverts and psychopaths: Implications for the impulsive behavior of disinhibited individuals

To explore the factors mediating impulsivity in the syndromes of disinhibition, we investigated the ability of extraverts and psychopaths to use signals for punishment to withhold maladaptive approach behavior under various incentive conditions. The results provide evidence that (a) in comparison to controls, extraverts and psychopaths fail to use cues for punishment to inhibit incorrect approach responses; (b) the deficient response inhibition of disinhibited subjects is specific to approach-avoidance situations; (c) under conditions involving monetary rewards and punishments, disinhibited subjects are less likely to slow down, and may even respond more quickly, following punishment; and (d) the tendency to speed up rather than slow down following punishment is associated with failure to learn from punishment. The results suggest that once focused on obtaining reward, extraverts and psychopaths display an active (disinhibited) as opposed to a passive (reflective) reaction to punishment and frustrative nonreward. This reaction to punishment appears to interfere with learning cues for punishment and may underlie the poor passive avoidance learning and impulsive behavior that characterize the syndromes of disinhibition.     

Individual differences in components of slow cortical potentials: implications for models of information processing

Individual differences in the effects of pharmacological and behavioural manipulations on slow cortical potentials (SCP), may reflect personality differences in type of informational control under attentional stress. Two experiments were conducted to examine SCP component differences in extraverts and introverts under different attentional tasks and with and without nicotine smoking ‘stressor’ conditions. In an initial experiment a decrease in late negativity for introverts and an increase in late negativity for extraverts suggested that smoking enhanced introverts' stimulus set and extraverts' motor set. In a second experiment, personality differences in SCP were examined again, but within a signal-detection paradigm, which allows separate assessment of the contribution of sensory sensitivity and response bias factors to performance. Smoking increased sensitivity in both personality groups, but response bias (caution) increased in introverts only. Extraverts showed an increase in central negativity during smoking whilst introverts showed a decrease in negativity and a decrease in positive wave components. The results are explained in terms of a motor model of attentional control whereby smoking regulates inhibitory controlled actions in introverts, but activates general motor processes for extraverts.     

Extraversion and reactions to cognitive inconsistency

Two studies are reported which test the hypothesis that extraverts are more tolerant of cognitive inconsistency than are introverts. The first study tested this prediction in the context of Heider's balance model. While degree of extraversion did not moderate reactions to imbalance, extraverts did show less aversion to interpersonal disagreement than introverts. When coupled with other recently published data this suggests that extraverts find arousing social situations less aversive than introverts. In support of the main hypothesis, the second experiment showed that extraverts changed their attitudes less than introverts as a result of writing an essay which was counter to their own attitude under conditions where they had high perceived freedom of choice.     

Overhabituation and dishabituation: Effects of extraversion and amount of training

The Eysenck (1967) hypothesis that introverts have higher levels of cortical activation than extraverts has received support in a number of psychophysiological studies, though there is not complete consistency. The present study extended the habituation paradigm used in some previous work to include an examination of differences between extraverts and introverts during and following long-term overhabituation. Electrodermal activity was recorded while 72 extraverts and 72 introverts were subjected to criterion auditory habituation to a 1000-Hz, 90-db tone, followed by 60, 100, or 140 trials of overhabituation. The overhabituation run was followed by a test stimulus of 7000 Hz and a final repetition of the standard stimulus. Results showed that introverts increased in response frequency with increasing overhabituation exposure, while extraverts showed an increase only from 100 to 140 trials. In addition, the hypothesis that differences in test response amplitude favoring introverts would be eliminated by extended overhabituation training was supported. Specifically, extraverts showed increased responses at 100 and 140 trials, while introverts remained approximately constant across the three conditions. Finally, results supported the Sokolov hypothesis that overhabituation training produces test responses of larger amplitude.     

Want a tip? Service performance as a function of emotion regulation and extraversion

Surface acting and deep acting with customers are strategies for service performance, but evidence for their effectiveness is limited and mixed. We propose that deep acting is an effective strategy for most employees, whereas surface acting's effect on performance effectiveness depends on employee extraversion. In Study 1, restaurant servers who tended to use deep acting exceeded their customers' expectations and had greater financial gains (i.e., tips) regardless of extraversion, whereas surface acting improved tips only for extraverts, not for introverts. In Study 2, a call center simulation, deep acting improved emotional performance and increased the likelihood of extrarole service behavior beyond the direct and interactive effects of extraversion and other Big Five traits. In contrast, surface acting reduced emotional performance for introverts and not extraverts, but only during the extrarole interaction. We discuss implications for incorporating traits into emotional labor research and practice.