Driving Under the Influence (of Stress): Evidence of a Regional Increase in Impaired Driving and Traffic Fatalities After the September 11 Terrorist Attacks

ABSTRACT— Did the September 11 terrorist attacks elicit a subsequent increase in traffic fatalities? Gigerenzer (2004) argued that decreases in flying and increases in driving in the 3 months after the attacks led to 353 "surplus" traffic fatalities. We applied a more systematic analysis to the same data and found no evidence of a significant increase in miles driven or of a significant increase in traffic fatalities. However, we did find evidence for a regional effect of the attacks on driving behaviors. We hypothesized that geographic proximity to the attacks increased stress, which in turn decreased driving quality. Our analyses revealed that in the last 3 months of 2001, the Northeast exhibited a significant increase in traffic fatalities, as well as a significant increase in fatal accidents involving an alcohol- or drug-related citation. Increased stress related to physical proximity to the attacks may explain the increase in traffic fatalities.     

On the relation between visual surround and motion aftereffect velocity

Two experiments examined the effect of changes in the visual surround upon the velocity of motion aftereffects. Experiment I showed that introduction or reintroduction of a patterned surround midway through the test period was sufficient to produce an increase in apparent velocity. However, a greater increase was observed when a patterned surround instead of a dark homogeneous surround had been used during the induction period. Experiment II demonstrated that luminance change was also sufficient to produce an increase in apparent velocity, although the extent of the increase was not as great as that produced through the use of the patterned surround in Experiment I. These results indicate that a change in stimulus surround is sufficient to produce an increase in the velocity of a motion aftereffect and that the extent of the increase is dependent upon the characteristics of both the induction and test surrounds.     

Is induction produced by upcoming food-pellet reinforcement the outcome of an increase in overall activity or in operant responding?

Researchers have demonstrated that rats reliably increase their rates of pressing a lever for 1% liquid-sucrose reinforcement if they will soon have the opportunity to press a lever for food-pellet reinforcement. In the present experiments, the authors investigated if this increase in response rates occurred because the upcoming food pellets produced an increase in all behaviors (i.e., general arousal) or an increase in only the specific operant response (i.e., lever pressing). The results of Experiments 1 and 2 showed that the appearance of induction in rats' lever pressing for 1% sucrose reinforcement when food-pellet reinforcement was upcoming did not coincide with increases in the frequency of running in a wheel or making a nonreinforced nose-poke response. On the other hand, in Experiment 3, the authors found the appearance of induction coincided with increase nonreinforced lever presses on an adjacent lever. These results shed doubt on the idea that induction is a result of a general increase in all activity, and suggest instead that the increase in responding that occurs during induction is limited to the operant response.     

Choice reaction times for skilled responses

Two kinds of choice reaction time experiments are reported, both of which make use of a highly overlearned sensori-motor response. When a response is required for each stimulus presented, no increase in reaction time occurs as a function of the number of alternative stimuli available. It is proposed that the increase in choice reaction times commonly thought to accompany an increase in the number of alternative choices provided reflects the unpractised state of the responder. When a response is required for only one out of n possible stimuli, a slight but consistent increase in reaction time takes place with an increase in the number of alternatives. An analogy is drawn between the second experiment and a vigilance task and an expectancy hypothesis is invoked to explain the results.     

Self-efficacy as a predictor of ability to learn control of heart rate increase with and without biofeedback

Abstract

The usefulness of self-efficacy as a predictor of success in controlling heart rate increase with and without biofeedback was investigated in an experimental study on 60 adult subjects. The first part of the study measured heart rate increase control without biofeedback training, the second part measured heart rate increase control with biofeedback training and a posttest measured subsequent heart rate increase control without biofeedback. The results revealed that higher levels of self-efficacy were predictive of success in controlling heart rate increase without biofeedback, but not with biofeedback.     

The use of a computer presented virtual licence plate and mental context reinstatement to improve recall accuracy of both licence plate and related event details

This study examines the use of mental context reinstatement (MCR) and a virtual licence plate (VLP) in licence plate recall. In Experiment 1, 104 participants viewed a videoed crime featuring a vehicle bearing an ‘old‐style’ UK licence plate. Group 1 (control) recalled the video unaided by MCR or VLP. Group 2 used MCR, Group 3 used VLP, Group 4 used MCR + VLP. Compared with control, group 2 demonstrated a significant 38% increase in correct plate characters recalled, group 3 a non‐significant 23% increase, and group 4 a significant 69% increase. Group 4 also demonstrated a significant 50% increase in correct information recalled regarding the crime. In Experiment 2, 48 participants viewed a videoed crime featuring a vehicle bearing a ‘new‐style’ UK plate. Results replicated Experiment 1. The MCR + VLP group demonstrated a significant 124% increase in correct licence plate recall and a significant 52% increase in correct information recalled regarding the crime. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Utilitarians Are Not Always Fair and the Fair Are Not Always Utilitarian: Distinct Motives for Cooperation1

This paper investigates the effect of utilitarianism and fairness motives on cooperative behavior in a real‐life, large‐scale social dilemma while also looking at the moderating effect of various situational factors on this relationship. Perceived criticality of the situation and high‐efficacy beliefs are shown to increase cooperation of utilitarians more than they increase cooperation of those with a fairness motive. Ownership of the problem and the expected cooperation of others on the other hand are shown to increase cooperation of those with a fairness motive more so than they increase cooperation of utilitarians. Implications of these findings for increasing cooperation in social dilemmas are discussed.     

A prospective study of pressures from parents, peers, and the media on extreme weight change behaviors among adolescent boys and girls

The current study was designed to evaluate the role of sociocultural influences over a 16 month period on strategies to lose weight, extreme weight loss strategies, and strategies to increase muscles among adolescent boys (n=344) and girls (n=246). All participants completed measures of body dissatisfaction, body image importance, strategies to lose weight, extreme weight loss strategies, and strategies to increase muscles. Measures of perceived pressure to lose weight or increase muscles from mother, father, best male friend, best female friend and the media were also evaluated. Data were gathered on three occasions, 8 months apart. The results demonstrated that boys showed a decrease in strategies to lose weight and increase muscles over time, whereas girls showed an increase. Both boys and girls showed an increase in extreme weight loss strategies with girls demonstrating a greater increase than boys. The sociocultural influences generally were perceived by girls to relate to messages to lose weight, whereas for boys they were perceived to relate to increasing muscles. Messages from parents, particularly fathers, were strong predictors of both strategies to lose weight and increase muscles among boys, with the media and best male friend playing a limited role. For girls, the strongest influences were mothers and best female friends, with few influences from fathers or the media. The results of this study are discussed in terms of the importance of the various sociocultural influences in shaping body change strategies among young adolescent boys and girls, and the implications of these findings for intervention programs for adolescents.     

惩罚和社会价值取向对公共物品两难中人际信任与合作行为的影响

通过两个计算机情境模拟实验, 采用“取消惩罚”范式, 引入社会价值取向变量, 发现惩罚对人际信任和合作行为具有消极影响, 具体表现为当惩罚取消后, 经历过惩罚的被试的人际信任水平显著低于无惩罚条件被试的水平。惩罚对博弈者合作行为的影响在社会价值取向不同的博弈者之间存在显著差异：经历过惩罚的亲社会型被试在惩罚取消阶段的合作程度显著低于惩罚存在阶段的合作程度, 并且显著低于无惩罚条件被试的相应水平。惩罚通过亲社会型博弈者的人际信任水平对合作程度产生间接负效应, 即惩罚程度越强, 亲社会型博弈者的人际信任水平越低, 进而使其合作程度也下降。     

Effect on Restaurant Tipping of Male and Female Servers Drawing a Happy, Smiling Face on the Backs of Customers' Checks

Research has shown that a server's smiling can increase restaurant tips and that a server's writing "thank you" on the backs of checks can also increase tips. In the current study, these two approaches were combined. An experiment was conducted in which a male or female server drew a happy, smiling face on the backs of checks before delivering them to customers, or simply delivered checks with nothing drawn on the back. It was predicted that this tactic would increase tips for the female server because of an increased perception of friendliness, but would not increase tips for the male server because such behavior would be perceived as gender-inappropriate. Results were consistent with predictions.     

Without mercy: the immediate impact of group size on lynch mob atrocity

Two independent research traditions have focused on social contributions to lynching. The sociological power threat hypothesis has argued that lynching atrocity will increase as a function of the relative number of African Americans. The psychological self-attention theory has argued that lynching atrocity will increase as a function of the relative number of mob members. Two series of analyses (one using newspaper reports and the second using photographic records) using different and nonoverlapping samples of lynching events rendered a consistent pattern of results: Lynch mob atrocity did not increase as a function of the relative numbers of African Americans in the county population but it did increase as a function of the relative numbers of mob members in the lynch mob. Discussion considers the implications of these results.     

A pilot evaluation of the efficacy of a couple-tailored print intervention on colorectal cancer screening practices among non-adherent couples

The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a couple-tailored print (CTP) intervention on colorectal cancer screening (CRCS), CRCS intentions, and on knowledge and attitudes among couples in which neither partner is on schedule with regard to CRCS. A total of 168 married couples with both members non-adherent with CRCS were randomly assigned to receive either a CTP pamphlet accompanied by a generic print (GP) pamphlet or a GP pamphlet only. Couples completed measures of CRCS, intentions, relational perspective on CRCS, discussions about CRCS, spouse support for CRCS, spouse influence strategies, CRC knowledge, perceived CRC risk, and CRCS benefits and barriers. Results indicated there was no significant benefit of CTP vs. GP on CRCS, but there was a significant increase in CRCS intentions in CTP compared with GP. There was also a significant increase in relationship perspective on CRCS, a significant increase in husbands’ support of their wives’ CRCS, and a significant increase in CRCS benefits in CTP. In summary, CTP did not increase CRCS practices but increased intentions and perceived benefits of CRCS as well as improving couples’ ability to view CRCS as having benefit for the marital relationship.     

Repetition increases false recollection in older people

Aging is accompanied by an increase in false alarms on recognition tasks, and these false alarms increase with repetition in older people (but not in young people). Traditionally, this increase was thought to be due to a greater use of familiarity in older people, but it was recently pointed out that false alarms also have a clear recollection component in these people. The main objective of our study is to analyze whether the expected increase in the rate of false alarms in older people due to stimulus repetition is produced by an inadequate use of familiarity, recollection, or both processes. To do so, we carried out an associative recognition experiment using pairs of words and pairs of images (faces associated with everyday contexts), in which we analyzed whether the repetition of some of the pairs increases the rate of false alarms in older people (compared to what was found in a sample of young people), and whether this increase is due to familiarity or recollection (using a remember‐know paradigm). Our results show that the increase in false alarms in older people due to repetition is produced by false recollection, calling into question both dual and single‐process models of recognition. Also, older people falsely recollect details of never studied stimuli, a clear case of perceptual illusions. These results are better explained in terms of source‐monitoring errors, mediated by people's retrieval expectations.     

Can auditory deviant stimuli temporarily suspend cognitive processing? Evidence from patients with anxiety

While anxiety is typically thought to increase distractibility, this notion mostly derives from studies using emotionally loaded distractors presented in the same modality as the target stimuli and tasks involving crosstalk interference. We examined whether pathological anxiety might also increase distractibility for emotionally neutral irrelevant sounds presented prior to target stimuli in a task where these stimuli do not compete for selection. Patients with anxiety and control participants categorized visual digits preceded by task-irrelevant sounds that changed on rare trials (auditory deviance). Both groups exhibited an equivalent increase in response times following a deviant sound but patients showed a reduction of response accuracy, which was entirely due to an increase in response omissions. We conclude that the involuntary capture of attention by unexpected stimuli may, in patients with anxiety, result in a temporary suspension of cognitive activity.     

The freezing and unfreezing of lay-inferences: Effects on impressional primacy,ethnic stereotyping,and numerical anchoring

Three experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that primacy effects, ethnic stereotyping, and numerical anchoring all represent “epistemic freezing” in which the lay-knower becomes less aware of plausible alternative hypotheses and/or inconsistent bits of evidence competing with a given judgment. It was hypothesized that epistemic freezing would increase with an increase in time pressure on the lay-knower to make a judgment and decrease with the layknower's fear that his/her judgment will be evaluated and possibly be in error. Accordingly, it was predicted that primacy effects, ethnic stereotyping, and anchoring phenomena would increase in magnitude with an increase in time pressure and decrease in magnitude with an increase in evaluation apprehension. Finally, the time-pressure variations were expected to have greater impact upon “freezing” when the evaluation apprehension is high as opposed to low. All hypotheses were supported in each of the presently executed studies.     

Kinematic markers of distance-specific control in linear hand movements

In this article, the authors analyze kinematic characteristics of reaching movements to memorized visual target locations. An increase in target distance was associated with a decrease in correlation between peak acceleration and movement distance and with a simultaneous increase in correlation between peak acceleration and movement time. According to the previous work on motor control in isometric force responses and in reaching movements these results seem to indicate a continuous transition from a rather preplanned to a more corrective mode of movement control, which may be associated with an adaptive mechanism serving to counteract an increase in signal-dependent noise of the motor system.     

The paradoxical effects of suppressing anxious thoughts during imminent threat

In line with the ironic processing theory of Wegner (Psychol. Rev. 101 (1994) 34), it is often argued that the suppression of anxiety-related thoughts results in a paradoxical increase of anxiety and thought intrusions, both after and during the thought suppression. In a sample of undergraduate students (14 men, 18 women), we investigated the effects of suppressing anxious thoughts about an imminent painful electrocutaneous stimulus. During thought suppression, self-reported anxiety and frequency of anxious thoughts did not increase, and duration of anxious thoughts decreased. After thought suppression, participants experienced an increase in self-reported anxiety and the frequency of anxious thoughts. There was no effect upon thought duration. The results support the idea that suppression of anxiety-related thoughts may result in a paradoxical increase in anxiety, and may cause and/or maintain anxiety problems.     

Factors in the waning of muricide in the rat. II. Digging behavior

If each mouse killed by a rat is removed from the rat's home cage and replaced immediately by another, the decline in the rate of killing within the one-hour sessions is accompanied by an increase in digging in the woodchip bedding material. Deprivation of the opportunity to dig by removal of the bedding material results in a statistically significant increase in kill rate. Since no other behaviors monitored showed a similar increase with this manipulation, it appears that digging may be a mechanism important in the waning of muricide. Furthermore, digging may be, in some sense, a functional equivalent of killing.     

Investigating the childhood development of working memory using sentences: New evidence for the growth of chunk capacity

Child development is accompanied by a robust increase in immediate memory. This may be due to either an increase in the number of items (chunks) that can be maintained in working memory or an increase in the size of those chunks. We tested these hypotheses by presenting younger and older children (7 and 12 years of age) and adults with different types of lists of auditory sentences: four short sentences, eight short sentences, four long sentences, and four random word lists, each read with a sentence-like intonation. Young children accessed (recalled words from) fewer clauses than did older children or adults, but no age differences were found in the proportion of words recalled from accessed clauses. We argue that the developmental increase in memory span was due to a growing number of chunks present in working memory with little role of chunk size.     

Perceptions of Challenges Affecting Research Ethics Committees’ Members at Medical and Health Science Colleges in Omani and Jordanian Universities

Journal of Academic Ethics - In recent years there has been an increase in research conducted in the Middle East, with a corresponding increase in the challenges faced by members of the Research...