Symptoms Among Partners,Family, and Friends of Individuals with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Associations with Social Support Behaviors,Gender, and Relationship Status

Social support represents an important recovery factor for individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Nevertheless, partners, family, and friends who take on the role of caregiver for individuals with PTSD might face multiple difficulties. For example, they are at risk for developing anxiety and depressive symptoms, which could negatively affect their ability to offer support. This study examined the associations between the difficulties of individuals with PTSD (i.e., symptoms and level of functioning), their caregivers’ (partners, family, and friends) anxiety and depressive symptoms, and social support behaviors according to 2 variables: relationship status and gender. Sixty-five individuals with PTSD and either their partner, family member, or friend filled out questionnaires and participated in a trauma-oriented discussion. Social support behaviors were coded. Results revealed no associations between the difficulties of individuals with PTSD and their caregivers’ symptoms. However, caregivers’ depressive symptoms were negatively associated with the quality of some of their social support behaviors. Moreover, relationship status and gender were significant moderators, indicating stronger negative associations between anxiety and depressive symptoms and some social support behaviors of men and caregiving partners. Male caregivers could have difficulties offering appropriate support and responding to traditional masculine roles (e.g., being strong and self-reliant) when they report symptoms themselves. Partners are particularly involved in the everyday life of individuals with PTSD. Thus, they could have difficulties keeping an optimal emotional distance to offer support when they report symptoms themselves. Future directions as well as clinical implications are discussed.     

Why do Women get Depressed and Men get Drunk? An Examination of Attributional Style and Coping Style in Response to Negative Life Events Among Canadian Young Adults

Gender differences in alcohol consumption and depressive symptoms are well known. This study focused on the associations of gender with attributional style, coping style, and negative life events in explaining these differences. The association of gender with each of the predictor and outcome variables was examined. One hundred eight (51 men, 57 women) undergraduate university students, ages 18–21, completed validated measures of depression, alcohol consumption, attributional style, coping style, and negative life events. Participants reported mild-moderate levels of depressive symptoms, similar to comparable samples. In contrast, alcohol consumption was lower than expected. Depressive symptoms were associated with negative events and rumination among both men and women. Pessimism and wine consumption were correlated with depression among women only. Although men consumed more alcohol than did women, a gender difference in depressive symptoms was not found. Potential implications of these findings are discussed.     

PTSD, Depressive Symptoms, and Suicidal Ideation in African American Women: A Mediated Model

Although research has shown positive associations among post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depressive symptoms, and suicidal ideation, the nature of these relations is unclear, especially in African American women. This study examined the associations among these comorbid psychological difficulties in a sample of 136 low-income, African American women. Specifically, the goal of this investigation was to ascertain if overall depressive symptoms, as well as both the cognitive-affective and somatic components of depression, mediated the PTSD-suicidal ideation link. Results from bootstrapping analyses revealed that overall depressive symptoms and the cognitive-affective components of depression, but not the somatic components, mediated the PTSD-suicidal ideation link.     

Depressive Symptoms and Tobacco Use: Does Religious Orientation Play a Protective Role?

Many studies have established an association between depression and smoking. The main objective of this study was to determine whether religious orientation moderates the relationship between depressive symptoms and tobacco use. This study utilized a cross-sectional data collection strategy to examine the relationship among depressive symptoms, religious orientation, and tobacco use among undergraduate students (N = 349) at a midsize southeastern university. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, the Extrinsic/Intrinsic Religious Orientation Scale-Revised and the Drinking and Drug Habits Questionnaire. Analyses using hierarchical linear regression indicate a significant interaction effect (depressive symptoms × extrinsic religious orientation) on tobacco use. Additional moderation analyses reveal a significant interaction effect between depressive symptoms and the extrinsic-personal religious orientation on tobacco use. Results suggest that having an extrinsic religious orientation, and specifically, the extrinsic-personal subtype, can protect against the effects of depressive symptoms. In this regard, individuals who turn to religion for solace or comfort may be less likely to engage in tobacco use when experiencing depressive symptoms. Limitations, future directions, and implications are discussed.     

The Psychological Impact From Hurricane Katrina: Effects of Displacement and Trauma Exposure on University Students

The following study examined the reactions of university students to Hurricane Katrina. A group of 68 New Orleans area students who were displaced from their home universities as a result of the hurricane were matched on race, gender, and age to a sample of 68 students who had been enrolled at Louisiana State University (LSU) prior to the hurricane. All students were enrolled at LSU at the time they participated in an online survey, conducted 3 months following the hurricane. The survey included symptom measures of depression, anxiety, stress, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and other variables. Results indicated displaced students experienced more trauma exposure and greater subsequent distress, more symptoms of PTSD, and more symptoms of depression. Moreover, traumatic exposure and distress from the traumatic exposure were found to fully mediate depressive symptoms and posttraumatic symptoms in the displaced students.     

Relationships between health behaviors,posttraumatic stress disorder,and comorbid general anxiety and depression

Poor health outcomes associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may reflect engagement in unhealthy behaviors that increase morbidity risk and disengagement in healthy behaviors that decrease morbidity risk. Although research supports this pattern, findings are not definitive, particularly for healthy behaviors. Many studies have not controlled for effects of concurrent generalized anxiety and depression, which might explain conflicting findings. To address this limitation, we used an online cross-sectional research design and multivariate multilevel modelling to evaluate associations between a multitude of health behaviors (i.e. sedentary behavior, sleep quality, physical activity, eating habits, alcohol use and substance use) and PTSD, while adjusting for comorbid generalized anxiety and depression, in a sample of trauma-exposed individuals (N = 246). Our results indicate that PTSD and comorbid generalized anxiety and depression symptoms were differentially associated with specific health constructs. Specifically, sedentary behavior and poor sleep quality were associated with PTSD, whereas low physical activity, poor sleep quality, and unhealthy eating habits were associated with depression. Both increased alcohol and substance use were associated with generalized anxiety. Results from our study highlight the need to conceptualize associations between health behaviors and specific psychological symptoms in a comprehensive manner as part of clinical presentations of PTSD.     

Body weight and weight perception among African and Caribbean university students: Correlation with depression symptoms

The aim of the study was to investigate the association between body weight, weight perception, and depressive symptoms in African and Caribbean university students. In a cross-sectional survey the total sample included 4 964 undergraduate university students (mean age 21.8, SD = 3.4, age range = 18-30 years) from five African and three Caribbean countries. Data on the students’ actual and perceived body weight, as well as depression symptoms, were collected. In logistic regression, perceived rather than measured overweight predicted depressive symptoms in male students with normal weight. For female students, perceived overweight predicted depression symptoms regardless of actual body weight. Male students who overestimated their body weight were at greater risk of depressive symptoms. Body weight self-perceptions appear to influence experience of mood disorder among African and Caribbean country students.     

Social support at university scale, a brief index

A brief, 3-item index of social support among college students, the Social Support at University Scale, is introduced. Its psychometric properties are examined in a sample of 90 college students (51 women, 39 men) and compared with those of an equivalent scale distributed among 100 university staff (67 women, 33 men). The Short-Form Social Support Questionnaire, the Perceived Stress Scale, and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale were also administered to each participant. The data suggest that the Social Support at University Scale possesses internal consistency reliability suitable for research (alpha = .68), external validity as indicated by comparisons between the student and staff samples, concurrent validity as indicated by correlations with measures of generic social support, and criterion validity as indicated by associations with known correlates of social support, namely, perceived stress, anxiety, and depression.     

Intraindividual relations between the intensity and disclosure of daily emotional events: The moderating role of depressive symptoms

Individuals with high levels of depressive symptoms tend to engage in lower levels of emotional disclosure than individuals who are lower in depressive symptoms. However, little is known about how depressive symptoms relate to the intraindividual relation between daily disclosure and the intensity of the daily events. The authors addressed these relations using a daily diary methodology. College students (N = 239) completed a measure of depression symptoms. They then completed measures of the intensity of the day's most unpleasant event and their disclosure of that event each day for 7 days. Results indicated that depression moderated the intensity-disclosure relation such that depression symptoms were associated with diminished emotional disclosure for high-intensity events but not for low-intensity events. Individuals with relatively higher levels of depressive symptoms also experienced unpleasant daily events at a higher intensity level than did individuals with relatively fewer symptoms. Sex differences emerged such that men were less likely than women to disclose high-intensity negative events. These findings extend the use of the diary methodology to the study of emotional disclosure and also suggest possible interventions for counseling psychology practitioners.     

Suicidal behavior, negative affect, gender, and self-reported delinquency in college students

The associations among suicidal behavior, negative affect, and delinquency were assessed via an anonymous self-report survey administered to male and female college students ( N = 383). Contrary to our hypothesized results, there were no gender differences in rates of suicidal ideation and attempts. Confirming our hypotheses about gender differences, college men did report significantly more delinquent behavior than college women. College men also scored higher on the suicide-proneness scale, which contained a mixture of death-related, risk-related, and negative self- and health-related items. Furthermore, as predicted, college students with a history of depression, suicide ideation, and/or suicide attempts all reported significantly more delinquent behavior. Self-reported delinquency and current levels of depressive symptomology emerged as significant predictors of suicide-prone behavior for both college men and women, explaining 34% of the variance for women and 17% for men. Levels of engagement in suicide-prone behavior and feelings of depression were elevated in college students with any type of juvenile arrest history. Students with an arrest history were also more likely to have had a diagnosis of depression and to have engaged in suicide ideation in their past. These findings suggest there are complex links between depression, delinquency, and suicidal behavior in college men and women.     

Acculturative stress, social support, and coping: relations to psychological adjustment among Mexican American college students

This study examined the relations between acculturative stress and psychological functioning, as well as the protective role of social support and coping style, in a sample of 148 Mexican American college students (67% female, 33% male; mean age = 23.05 years, SD = 3.33). In bivariate analyses, acculturative stress was associated with higher levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms. Moreover, active coping was associated with better adjustment (lower depression), whereas avoidant coping predicted poorer adjustment (higher levels of depression and anxiety). Tests of interaction effects indicated that parental support and active coping buffered the effects of high acculturative stress on anxiety symptoms and depressive symptoms. In addition, peer support moderated the relation between acculturative stress and anxiety symptoms. Implications for reducing the effects of acculturative stress among Mexican American college students are discussed.     

Relationships among Proactive Coping,Posttrauma Gratitude,and Psychopathology in a Traumatized College Sample

Scant previous research has examined associations of proactive coping and psychopathology, although two preliminary findings suggest that proactive coping might be negatively associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and general depression symptom level. This study examined associations of proactive coping with PTSD and anhedonic depression in a sample of 169 traumatized undergraduates. As expected, women tended to report more severe PTSD symptoms and less life threat than men. No other gender differences were found. Most important, proactive coping and posttrauma state gratitude were independently negatively associated with PTSD symptom level, after controlling for trauma history and female gender. Further, proactive coping was independently negatively associated with anhedonic depression, beyond the effect of traumatic life threat. The implications of the findings for models of posttrauma psychopathology development are discussed.     

A longitudinal study of the effects of coping motives,negative affect and drinking level on drinking problems among college students

We examined among college students the interactive effects of drinking to cope (DTC) motivation, anxiety and depression symptoms, and drinking level in predicting drinking-related problems (DRPs). Using an Internet-based survey, participants (N = 844, 53% women) first reported on their drinking motives and monthly for up to three months, they reported on their drinking level, anxiety, depression, and DRPs. We found a three-way interaction between DTC motivation and average levels of drinking and anxiety (but not depression) in predicting DRPs. Specifically, among individuals with stronger DTC motives, higher mean levels of anxiety were associated with a stronger positive association between mean drinking levels and DRPs. We did not find three-way interactions in the models examining monthly changes in anxiety, depression, and drinking in predicting monthly DRPs. However, individuals high in DTC motivation showed a stronger positive association between changes in drinking level and DRPs. The results are discussed in terms of mechanisms related to attention-allocation and self-control resource depletion.     

Attachment Anxiety,Depressive Symptoms,and Adolescent Dating Violence Perpetration: A Longitudinal Mediation Analysis

Adolescent dating violence (ADV) is a prevalent public health issue that has been linked to many negative effects, including attachment anxiety and depressive symptoms. Previous literature suggests that the negative mental states characteristic of attachment anxiety could be associated with dating violence perpetration. Similarly, the negative mental states characteristic of depression have also been linked to perpetration, and might potentially increase an anxiously attached individual’s likelihood of engaging in dating violence perpetration. This study used a 10-month longitudinal design with a sample of 140 middle school and high school students from Southern California. Participants ranged in age from 13 to 18 years and were ethnically diverse. The study aimed at exploring depressive symptoms as a potential mediator for the relationship between attachment anxiety and ADV perpetration. Positive associations were found between attachment anxiety and perpetration (10 months after), attachment anxiety and depressive symptoms (10 months after), and between depressive symptoms and perpetration (both 10 months after). Furthermore, depressive symptoms partially mediated the relationship between attachment anxiety and ADV perpetration (10 months after). These findings have implications for the development of empirically driven school-based prevention and intervention programs.     

Defense mechanisms, behavior, and affect in young adulthood

The relationship between defense mechanism use, observed behavior, and affect was investigated in a sample of 91 young adults. Defense mechanisms were assessed using Cramer's (1991a) Defense Mechanism Manual for TAT stories; behavior was based on observer Q-sort ratings (Block, 1978). The findings show that men and women who rely on the immature defense of denial at age 23 show multiple signs of behavioral immaturity, as well as anxiety. In contrast, extensive use of projection was related to a suspicious, hyperalert personality style, including anxiety and depression, in men, but to a sociable, nonwary, nondepressed style in women. The use of the mature defense of identification, by women, was related to behavior characterized by maturity, social competence, and the absence of depressive symptoms.     

A Cross-Cultural Study of Depression in the Aftermath of a Natural Disaster

This study evaluated the extent and severity of depressive symptoms among adults (n=1015) in Armenia one year after the 1988 earthquake, using an Armenian translation of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-Arm). Earthquake surivivors had higher levels of depression than did their non-earthquake counterparts. For both the quake and non-quake regions, women were found to have higher scores on the BDI-Arm than men, and persons between the ages of 31–55 reported significantly higher depressive ratings than individuals who were 17–30. Interactions between the quake and non-quake areas and gender indicated that women in both areas reported significantly more depressive symptoms than men. The psychometric properties of the BDI-Arm compared favorably to those defined by North American studies.     

Gender Differences in the Correlates of Self-Referent Word Use: Authority, Entitlement, and Depressive Symptoms

ABSTRACT Past research shows that self-focused attention is robustly positively related to depression, and women are more likely than men to self-focus in response to depressed mood (e.g., R. Ingram, 1990 ; S. Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987 ). The goal of the current study was to further delineate gender differences in the correlates of self-focus as measured through the frequency of spontaneous use of self-referencing words. The frequency of such word use during a life history interview was correlated with self-reports, observations by clinically trained interviewers, and personality judgments by acquaintances. Results indicated that the relationship between self-reference and observations of depressive symptoms was stronger for women than men, and the relationship between self-reference and narcissistic authority and entitlement was stronger for men than for women. Acquaintance ratings supported these correlates. These findings illuminate the importance of using multiple measures and paying attention to gender differences in research on self-focus.     

Associations between dimensions of anxiety sensitivity and PTSD symptom clusters in active-duty police officers

Prior studies have shown that anxiety sensitivity (AS) plays an important role in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity. The purpose of this study was to evaluate associations between empirically supported PTSD symptom clusters (i.e. reexperiencing, avoidance, numbing, hyperarousal) and AS dimensions (i.e. psychological concerns, social concerns, somatic concerns). Participants were 138 active-duty police officers (70.7% female; mean age = 38.9 years; mean time policing = 173.8 months) who, as a part of a larger study, completed measures of trauma exposure, PTSD symptoms, AS, and depressive symptoms. All participants reported experiencing at least one event that they perceived as traumatic, and 44 (31.9%) screened positive for PTSD. Officers with probable PTSD scored significantly higher on AS total as well as the somatic and psychological concerns dimensional scores than did those without PTSD. As well, a higher percentage of officers with probable PTSD scored positively on the AS-derived Brief Screen for Panic Disorder (Apfeldorf et al., 1994) compared with those without PTSD. A series of regression analyses revealed that depressive symptoms, number of reported traumas, and AS somatic concerns were significant predictors of PTSD total symptom severity as well as severity of reexperiencing. Avoidance was predicted by depressive symptoms and AS somatic concerns. Only depressive symptoms were significantly predictive of numbing and hyperarousal cluster scores. These findings contribute to understanding the nature of association between AS and PTSD symptom clusters. Implications for the treatment of individuals having PTSD with and without panic-related symptomatology are discussed.     

Specificity of the Association between Marital Discord and Longitudinal Changes in Symptoms of Depression and Generalized Anxiety Disorder in the Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing

This longitudinal study was conducted to evaluate actor and partner effects of marital discord on changes in symptoms of depression and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) in a large population sample of Irish adults (N = 1,445 couples), adjusting for the potential confounds of quality of other social relationships and other psychopathology symptoms. The Actor–Partner Interdependence Model was used to examine actor and partner effects of marital discord on changes in symptoms of depression and GAD at a 2‐year follow‐up. Additional models examined these associations adjusting for family and friend discord and symptoms of the other type of psychopathology (depressive or GAD symptoms). Actor effects of marital discord on depressive and anxiety symptoms were greater for men than for women. There were significant, positive actor effects of marital discord on depressive symptoms for husbands and wives, which remained significant when adjusting for family and friend discord and GAD symptoms. There were significant, positive actor effects of marital discord on GAD symptoms for husbands, which remained significant when adjusting for family and friend discord and depressive symptoms. Results demonstrate that longitudinal associations between marital discord and depressive symptoms (for wives and husbands) and GAD symptoms (for husbands) are incremental to other rival explanations (family and friend discord and the other set of symptoms). Findings provide evidence for a potential causal association leading from marital discord to symptoms of depression and GAD.     

Reports of attempted suicide among Brazilian addicts

Both substance dependence and depressive mood seem to be associated with increased suicide risk. Clinical information on suicide attempts and depressive symptoms were obtained from a sample of 211 psychoactive substance dependents attending a university clinic program for addicts in Brazil. 49 subjects (23.4%) had attempted suicide at least once, and the frequency of reporting attempts was 4.32 times greater among women than among men. Male addicts also tended to engage in potentially more dangerous attempt methods than women. Depressive male addicts were 2.17 times more likely to have attempted suicide than nondepressive addicted men. Among women, no association could be established between having attempted suicide and the presence of depression. Substance addicts have a relatively high risk of attempting suicide and the co-occurrence of depression seems to increase prevalence of suicidal behavior among men.