Memory for frequency of hearing popular songs

In two experiments college students were asked to provide situational frequency estimates of 10-s excerpts from rock songs. In both experiments familiarity of the musical selections heard one, two, three, or four times was varied. In Experiment 2 the nature of instructions given to subjects prior to presentation of the musical excerpts was also manipulated. Across both experiments subjects' estimates were less accurate for unfamiliar than for familiar rock music. In Experiment 2 instructions to remember frequency, as well as general memory instructions, resulted in better memory for presentation frequency than did instructions to "ignore" music while working on math problems. Memory for situational frequency was also related to knowledge of rock music as defined by subjects' ability to identify the titles and artists of the presented songs. The present pattern of results with popular music is viewed as similar to that obtained in experiments investigating memory for frequency of verbal stimuli. Although providing support for an automatic processing view of frequency encoding, the results also implicate meaningful elaboration of stimuli as an important determinant of memory for frequency of events.     

Source memory in Parkinson's disease

Three experiments (ns = 14 per group) are reported which investigated the ability of Parkinson patients to remember the characteristics of conditions under which a memory was acquired. In Exp. 1, subjects were required to indicate for each item in a recognition memory test whether it was spoken by Experimenter 1 or by Experimenter 2 (external-external source memory). In Exp. 2, subjects had to indicate for each item whether it was generated by themselves or by the experimenter (internal-external source memory). In Exp. 3, subjects had to judge whether an item was generated by themselves in saying or in thinking (internal-internal source memory). We found that patients with Parkinson's disease were not impaired in the previous two kinds of source memory (Exp. 1 and 2) but were impaired in internal-internal source memory (Exp. 3) relative to the age-matched control groups. In addition, both groups' performance could be improved when given distinctive cues, i.e., perceptual cues in Exp. 1 and different-domain cues in Exp. 2. These results suggest that the availability of cues was critical for Parkinson's disease in source memory. Finally, the result of Exp. 2 also showed generation effects for patients with Parkinson's disease. The generation effect refers to better memory of information by people when they had to produce it, e.g., producing associates to a word, compared with memory of information given to them.     

EEG alpha desynchronization in musicians and nonmusicians in response to changes in melody, tempo, and key in classical music

Two experiments were performed to examine musicians' and nonmusicians' electroencephalographic (EEG) responses to changes in major dimensions (tempo, melody, and key) of classical music. In Exp. 1, 12 nonmusicians' and 12 musicians' EEGs during melody and tempo changes in classical music showed more alpha desynchronization in the left hemisphere (F3) for changes in tempo than in the right. For melody, the nonmusicians were more right-sided (F4) than left in activation, and musicians showed no left-right differences. In Exp. 2, 18 musicians' and 18 nonmusicians' EEG after a key change in classical music showed that distant key changes elicited more right frontal (F4) alpha desynchronization than left. Musicians showed more reaction to key changes than nonmusicians and instructions to attend to key changes had no significant effect. Classical music, given its well-defined structure, offers a unique set of stimuli to study the brain. Results support the concept of hierarchical modularity in music processing that may be automatic.     

Annoyance response of nonsmokers to cigarette smoke

In three experiments, nonsmoking subjects rated their annoyance by task environments while either exposed or not exposed to ambient tobacco smoke. In Exps. 1 and 2 subjects rated annoyance with the environment while exposed to three intensities of noise, and in Exp. 3 subjects rated annoyance while performing multiplication problems under conditions of high and low task motivation. The source of the ambient smoke in Exp. 1 was a smoke pump. For Exps. 2 and 3, the source of the smoke was confederate subjects. No differences in annoyance were obtained in Exps. 1 and 2 as a function of exposure to smoke. Exp. 3 showed that nonsmokers' annoyance to a task environment is dependent upon task motivation and exposure to ambient smoke. In Exp. 3 nonsmokers exposed to smoke were more annoyed than those not exposed under low motivating conditions. When nonsmokers were highly motivated in the task environment those exposed to smoke were significantly less annoyed than those not exposed.     

ÉTUDE INTERCULTURELLE DES PRÉFÉRENCES MUSICALES

The question of socio-cultural relativism or universalism in aesthetic judgment is dealt with in a cross-cultural study of musical preferences. Four groups of subjects were compared: Japanese expert musicians, French professional musicians, French students in music and French non-musician students. Their task was to state their preference for one of the elements in ten pairs of excerpts of traditional Japanese music, representing three levels of complexity (Koto, Trio, Gagaku). In addition, the subjects were asked to give a general appreciation of the three styles. The analysis of the preferences was performed in three ways: intra-group and inter-groups variabilities were computed as well as the variability due to the musical style. The results can be summarized as follows: as far as a group judgment is possible in one or another culture (intra-group agreement), the preferences of two culturally different groups do not contrast as long as the judgment concerns rather simple objects; the degree of inter-cultural agreement, far from increasing with musical competence, decreases. On the other hand, the judgments of more complex pieces show an agreement only in groups with musical skill and, in this case, the preference of Japanese and French musicians are contrasting. Finally, it is pointed out that a minimal attractiveness of the material presented is necessary to obtain from the subjects valid comparisons instead of artificial.     

Double response to Stroop stimuli.

To reexamine Klein's 1964 findings we carried out two experiments on the double response made to Stroop stimuli. In Exp. 1 incongruent color-word stimuli were presented on a CRT online with a microcomputer. A color-word card was used in Exp. 2. Subjects were asked to read words before naming colors or, conversely, to name colors before reading words. An analysis of variance (the task x the type of task) was performed on response times in both experiments. Two main effects and interactions were nonsignificant. Some subjects made an error-like reverse-order response on the double-response task. The present findings do not support Klein's findings or the competition explanation of the Stroop effect.     

Effect of starting position on reproduction of movement: further evidence of interference between location and distance information

Two experiments done with a short-term memory paradigm examined the influence of shifts in the starting position on the reproduction of kinesthetic location (Exp. 1) and on distance cues (Exp. 2). We assessed possible causes of the systematic pattern of undershooting and overshooting as related to the shift in the starting position. In each experiment, two groups of 10 students were given 25 trials, and each had criterion and reproduction tasks involving linear-positioning movements with a 10-sec. retention interval. Each experiment had two independent variables, the group of subjects and the shift in the starting position. The two groups differed in the possible sources of information, the distance moved (Exp. 1) or the end-location (Exp. 2), which were assumed to cause undershooting and overshooting during reproduction. Analysis showed that the information about the distance moved may produce undershooting and overshooting in reproduction of the end-location (Exp. 2). Also, the information about the end-location may produce undershooting and overshooting in reproduction of the distance moved (Exp. 2). The findings were further evidence of interference between location and distance cues in motor short-term memory.     

Finger-pressure waveforms measured on Clynes' Sentograph distinguish among emotions

We examined the transient finger-pressure when subjects were exposed to the schematic faces which depict "anger," "joy," "sadness," and "no emotion," and to two nonfacial stimuli. In Exp. 1, nine undergraduate women were asked to discriminate between those target stimuli and the nontarget stimuli by pressing on the finger rest of Clynes' Sentograph, without informing subjects that this experiment was to measure emotions. In Exp. 2, the same subjects were asked to express their feelings evoked by the schematic faces by pressing on the finger rest. Results indicate that, even on the discrimination task, the differentiation in the finger-pressure waveforms among emotions was observed. Such differentiation suggests the possibility of measuring the expression of emotions with finger pressure even when the subjects are not aware their emotions are being measured. The identifiable characteristics of the waveforms are the long duration for "sadness" and the strong intensity of pressure for "anger."     

Discrimination and memory experiments on haptic perception of softness

This paper described a pilot study and two follow-up experiments, using a device developed in the laboratory to study the human fingertip's discrimination and memory for softness perception. According to the pilot study, soft objects were easier to identify than hard ones. When subjects touched objects, the number of times seemed to be from 2 to 6. For most, the touch frequency ranged from 0.3 to 1.3 Hz. In Exp. 1, the method of constant stimuli was used to study the human fingertip's stiffness difference threshold for haptic perception. The estimated difference threshold averaged over 24 subjects was 33 N/m. And, the stiffness difference thresholds for most people were in the range of 20 N/m to 40 N/m. In Exp. 2, the haptic memory span was discussed according to the recall experiment. Human haptic memory span lay between three and four items.     

The effect of imagining an event on expectations for the event: An interpretation in terms of the availability heuristic

Previous studies have indicated that explaining a hypothetical event makes the event seem more likely through the creation of causal connections. However, such effects could arise through the use of the availability heuristic; that is, subjective likelihood is increased by an event becoming easier to imagine. Two experiments were designed to demonstrate this principle. In Experiment 1, subjects asked to imagine Jimmy Carter winning the presidential election (prior to the election) predicted that he was more likely to win than subjects asked to imagine Gerald Ford winning. In Experiment 2, subjects asked to imagine a good college football season for the previous championship team were more likely to predict a major bowl bid than subjects asked to imagine a bad season, although the effect did not appear in predictions of the season record. In both studies, subjects who were also asked to explain the imaginary event were no different from subjects who only imagined. Several other attributional distortions are interpreted in terms of the availability heuristic.     

To what extent do interactive pictures promote recall?

In four experiments, a total of 352 subjects viewed word pairs alone or accompanied by pictures, after which they were given a cued-recall test. Although Exps. 1 and 2 showed that recall of brand names was similar with separate and with interactive pictures, it was argued that the latter provided a cue enabling subjects to combine the separate components mentally. In Exp. 3, recall of both low concrete nouns and brand names was enhanced with interactive pictures and the effect was replicated in Exp. 4 with subjects who were learning English. These results offer hope to advertisers who wish to use interactive pictures whose relationship to their names is indirect.     

Distortions and fluctuations in topographic memory

Two experiments dealing with, the learning of a space by map or by navigation approached the questions of equivalency of the cognitive processes involved in spatial information and of response fluctuation. In the first experiment, 11 subjects were asked to situate, six times, 18 lo-cations on a blank map. In the second experiment, the subjects were first given 3 min to learn a map with 12 locations marked, and then asked to reproduce it. The task was repeated six times, using three different maps. This gave us several trials per subject, so that distortion could be distinguished from response fluctuation. In Experiment 1, the range of values was the same for response inaccuracy and response, fluctuation; in Experiment 2, the range was greater for response inaccuracy than for response fluctuation. The results showed that space learning by navigation and space learning by map involve different cognitive processes.     

概述和音乐对认知负荷和多媒体学习的影响

让学生学习多媒体呈现的有关移动通讯基础知识的材料,采用2(概述:概述vs.无概述)×2(背景音乐:有音乐vs.无音乐)的被试间设计,考察两因素对自评认知负荷、记忆和迁移成绩的影响.结果表明:两因素无交互作用;概述组的认知负荷显著低于无概述组,迁移成绩显著高于无概述组,两组记忆成绩没有显著差异;有背景音乐组的记忆成绩显著低于无音乐组,两组认知负荷和迁移成绩没有显著差异.     

材料呈现方式对不同音乐训练经验的汉语儿童英语言语记忆的影响

选取受过音乐训练和未受过音乐训练的汉语儿童为被试,在同一呈现速率条件下以歌曲、韵律和朗读三种方式呈现一段英文材料,从单词、句子和篇章三个层面探讨音乐训练经验和材料呈现方式对第二语言言语记忆的影响。结果发现：1）音乐组的记忆成绩高于非音乐组;2）相比于朗读材料,儿童对于歌曲和韵律材料的记忆效果更好;3）在单词和句子层面,音乐组和非音乐组的差异主要体现在歌曲材料上,而篇章层面没有类似发现。该结果表明音乐训练和材料呈现方式均能影响儿童的第二语言言语记忆,并且音乐训练效应对材料呈现方式表现出选择性     

Preferred perceptual tempo for sound sequences: comparison of adults, children, and infants

Previous motor and perceptual tasks have found optimal processing for sound sequences of a rate of around 600 msec. IOI (Interonset Interval). This zone of optimal processing (the rate at which discrimination is optimal) slows with age and is also found with infants. The current work investigated whether listeners "prefer" sequences at the rate for which they demonstrate optimal processing. In the present study, three experiments were done. Exp. 1 measured tempo preferences in adults who listened to pairs of isochronous sound sequences varying in tempo (from 100- to 1500-msec. IOI) and were required to indicate which they preferred. As expected, highest preferences were expressed for the intermediate tempi, supporting the hypothesis of a zone of preferred tempi comparable to the zone of optimal processing. Moreover, this preference for intermediate tempi was not affected by the temporal context (absence of differences between a fast, a slow, and a wide set of tempi). In Exp. 2, the same procedure was applied to 6- and 10-yr.-olds. Children in both groups had systematic preferences for the fastest tempi within a set, and the older children generally preferred slower sequences. Exp. 3 used a preference paradigm for sound sequences with 4-mo.-old infants, comparing sequences of 100- vs 300-msec. IOI, 300- vs 900-msec. IOI, and 100- vs 900-msec. IOI. No systematic tempo preferences were observed. We conclude that tempo discrimination and tempo preference may have some commonality (perhaps related to a zone of optimal processing), especially in adults, but that they also involve quite distinct processes which undergo different developmental sequences. Whereas adults prefer what they process the best, children prefer what is fastest (and therefore more attention-getting), and we have not been able to detect preferences in infants.     

内外源性空间注意对多感觉整合的影响

本文采用内-外源性空间线索靶子范式, 操控内源性线索有效性(有效线索、无效线索)、外源性线索有效性(有效线索、无效线索)、目标刺激类型(视觉刺激、听觉刺激、视听觉刺激)三个自变量。通过两个不同任务难度的实验(实验1: 简单定位任务; 实验2: 复杂辨别任务)来考察内外源性空间注意对多感觉整合的影响。两个实验结果均发现外源性空间注意显著减弱了多感觉整合效应, 内源性空间注意没有显著增强多感觉整合效应; 实验2中还发现了内源性空间注意会对外源性空间注意减弱多感觉整合效应产生影响。结果表明, 与内源性空间注意不同, 外源性空间注意对多感觉整合的影响不易受任务难度的调控; 当任务较难时内源性空间注意会影响外源性空间注意减弱多感觉整合效应的过程。由此推测, 内外源性空间注意对多感觉整合的调节并非彼此独立、而是相互影响的。     

Studying expertise in music reading: Use of a pattern-matching paradigm

Two experiments are described that make use of a pattern-matching paradigm to investigate perceptual processing of music notation. In Experiment 1, it is reported that the speed of comparing two visually presented musical sequences is related to the sight-reading skill of the subjects. The effect of the temporal and pitch structure of the comparison stimuli is also assessed. In Experiment 2, eyemovement recordings were taken as subjects performed the task. These data demonstrated that more experienced musicians are able to perform the comparisons with fewer, and shorter, glances between the patterns. These and other findings suggest that skilled sight-reading is associated with an ability to rapidly perceive notes or groups of notes in the score, and confirm that the pattern-matching paradigm is a useful tool in examining expertise in music reading.     

The Social Power of a Uniform1

The degree and basis of social power of uniformed figures was investigated in two field experiments. In the first experiment, subjects were stopped in the street by an experimenter dressed in one of three ways: a civilian, a milkman, or a guard. They were asked to pick up a paper bag, or to give a dime to a stranger, or to move away from a bus stop. The results indicated that the subjects complied more with the guard than with the civilian or milkman. In the second field experiment, designed to examine the basis of the guard's power, subjects were asked to give a dime to a stranger under conditions of either surveillance or nonsurveillance. The guard's power was not affected by the surveillance manipulation. A logical analysis of social power indicated that the guard's power was most likely based on legitimacy. Two questionnaire studies indicated, however, that college students did not perceive the guard as having either more. power or more legitimacy than the milkman or civilian. The nature and importance of understanding legitimacy was discussed.     

Priming voluntary autobiographical memories: Implications for the organisation of autobiographical memory and voluntary recall processes

The goal of this study was to show that voluntary autobiographical memories could be primed by the prior activation of autobiographical memories. Three experiments demonstrated voluntary memory priming with three different approaches. In Experiment 1 primed participants were asked to recall memories from their elementary school years. In a subsequent memory task primed participants were asked to recall memories from any time period, and they produced significantly more memories from their elementary school years than unprimed participants. In Experiment 2 primed participants were asked to recall what they were doing when they had heard various news events occurring between 1998 and 2005. Subsequently these participants produced significantly more memories from this time period than unprimed participants. In Experiment 3 primed participants were asked to recall memories from their teenage years. Subsequently these participants were able to recall more memories from ages 13–15 than unprimed participants, where both had only 1 second to produce a memory. We argue that the results support the notion that episodic memories can activate one another and that some of them are organised according to lifetime periods. We further argue that the results have implications for the reminiscence bump and voluntary recall of the past.