Recovering memories of trauma: A view from the laboratory

The controversy over the validity of repressed and recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) has been extraordinarily bitter. Yet data on cognitive functioning in people reporting repressed and recovered memories of trauma have been strikingly scarce. Recent laboratory studies have been designed to test hypotheses about cognitive mechanisms that ought to be operative if people can repress and recover memories of trauma or if they can form false memories of trauma. Contrary to clinical lore, these studies have shown that people reporting CSA histories are not characterized by a superior ability to forget trauma-related material. Other studies have shown that individuals reporting recovered memories of either CSA or abduction by space aliens are characterized by heightened proneness to form false memories in certain laboratory tasks. Although cognitive psychology methods cannot distinguish true memories from false ones, these methods can illuminate mechanisms for remembering and forgetting among people reporting histories of trauma.     

The impact of depression and PTSD symptom severity on trauma memory

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression frequently co-occur following a traumatic event. Differences in the processing of autobiographical memory have been observed in both disorders in the form of overgeneralised memories and negative intrusive memories. The current study examined how symptoms of PTSD and depression influence the phenomenological characteristics of trauma memories. Undergraduate students who had experienced a traumatic event (n?=?696) completed questionnaires online including measures of PTSD and depressive symptom severity. They rated their trauma memory on several phenomenological characteristics using the Memory Experiences Questionnaire [Sutin, A. R., &; Robins, R. W. (2007). Phenomenology of autobiographical memories: The memory experiences questionnaire. Memory.]. Moderated multiple regression was used to examine how PTSD and depressive symptom severity related to each phenomenological characteristic. Symptoms of PTSD and depression were related separately and uniquely to the phenomenological characteristics of the trauma memory. PTSD severity predicted trauma memories that were more negative, contained higher sensory detail, and were more vivid. In contrast, depressive symptom severity predicted trauma memories that were less accessible and less coherent. These findings suggest that depressive and PTSD symptomatology affect traumatic memory differently and support a distinction between these two disorders.     

The impact of individual trauma symptoms of deployed soldiers on relationship satisfaction.

Research traditionally has focused on the development of individual symptoms in those who experienced trauma directly but has overlooked the interpersonal impact of trauma. The current study reports data from 45 male Army soldiers who recently returned from a military deployment to Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom) or Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom) and their female spouses/partners. The results indicated that increased trauma symptoms, particularly sleep problems, dissociation, and severe sexual problems, in the soldiers significantly predicted lower marital/relationship satisfaction for both soldiers and their female partners. The results suggest that individual trauma symptoms negatively impact relationship satisfaction in military couples in which the husband has been exposed to war trauma.     

Displacement as trauma and trauma as displacement in the experience of refugees

This paper investigates the relations between displacement, home, trauma and the self in the experience of refugees, which has become an issue of unexpected and far-reaching proportions in recent times. It questions to what extent and under what conditions displacement in the world may be traumatic and how trauma may be considered the effect of an inner displacement. Refugees’ lives are marked by forced migration that is related to a certain suffering due to the changes in their family, relational, social and cultural lives. The paper explores the extent to which these changes can represent a break so significant as to be traumatic. It outlines the way in which traumatic experiences can produce an inner displacement and reorganization of one’s mental life that leads to a focus on traumatic complexes. Under the most severe traumatic conditions, this can be understood as a displacement of the central axis of Self, in which the ego complex yields its position to other complexes, with a deep change in the organization and functioning of self. The experience of refugees highlights the way in which we live in a matrix of conscious and unconscious links between inner and outer worlds that need deeper and simultaneous consideration to understand their implications and mutual resonances for the psyche. Clinical cases of refugees will illustrate some aspects of these interconnections.     

The day the earth stood still: The presence of trauma in time experience

The experience of time is commonly perceived as developing within the context of the early relationship between mother and infant. The beginning of life occurs in an adapted environment, aimed to protect the child from internal and external disruptions. Through healthy development, the mind acquires a feeling of continuity that gradually becomes a cohesive sense of personal identity. However, in cases of traumatic interruptions to the primary environment, the defensive shield of the self is penetrated and the individual becomes prematurely aware and adapted to the external reality. This forced acknowledgement of time and reality could be manifested in various types of time disturbances, such as disorientation about time or difficulties in following a schedule. In therapeutic relationships, this drama would be enacted in a struggle against the psychoanalytic setting, which disrupts the continuity of being with the therapist. Importantly, these patients express a deep conscious or unconscious fantasy to live in a timeless world, in which they would not be forced to adapt themselves to others’ expectations or needs. Clinical examples are used to illustrate how traumatic history is evident in the patient’s time experience and in the psychoanalytic dialogue.     

Vicarious trauma: The psychological impact of working with survivors of trauma for South African psychologists

Traumatic events are highly prevalent in South African society and psychologists who work with survivors of trauma have been identified as particularly at risk of being adversely affected by their work, and experiencing vicarious trauma. This study aimed to explore the experiences of a group of South African psychologists who work predominantly with trauma survivors. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with six psychologists (females = 67%). The predominant type of trauma encountered by participants in clinical practice was interpersonal trauma in the form of physical and sexual abuse (83%). Data were analysed using thematic analysis. All participants reported symptoms of vicarious trauma including disruption in cognitive schemas, symptoms characteristic of post-traumatic stress disorder, and somatic symptoms. Participants also reported vicarious post-traumatic growth including an enhanced sense of interpersonal connectedness and positive changes in their philosophy of life and self-perceptions. The findings serve to sensitise psychologists to the impact of working with trauma survivors so as to enhance the efficiency of psychological service delivery to traumatised populations.     

The impact of intrusive identification in the analytic process: Some implications of real trauma and phantasy1

In this paper, the author aims to show a possible understanding of very primitive identifications, especially intrusive identifications, when associated with traumatic situations and expressed through current phantasies related to these experiences. At first glance, this understanding could be considered quite straightforward. However, the original contribution offered by the author is the participation of this special kind of combination in the formation of the primitive intrusive identifications and its association with the imprisonment inside the primitive object of identification, especially the mother. The author proposes the amplification of the clinical use of the concept of ‘life in the claustrum’, originally described by Meltzer, moving beyond persecutory claustrophobic situations. He illustrates the phenomenon with the analytic work carried out with a patient whose narcissistic and intrusive character was structured on the basis of primitive intrusive identifications and phantasies related to the claustrum inside the mother. The patient's imprisonment inside the maternal compartments has, as its background, the phantasies related to the infantile traumatic experience of the death of the patient's brother, which are reproduced in the analytic relationship.     

Some thoughts on the creation of the child psychotherapist's role in a major teaching hospital

Twenty-three children, aged four to eight years, who had been exposed to violent attacks, were videotaped in individual 40-minute play sessions. These play narratives were recorded by a student researcher trained in narrative analysis and play therapy. She then sorted these play vignettes into three patterns of post-traumatic play, defined in the Children's Play Therapy Instrument/Adaptation for Trauma Research (CPTI/ATR). The three patterns were re-enactment with soothing; re-enactment without soothing; and overwhelming re-enactment. Each pattern was analysed further by the student researcher and the two authors of the scale to specify in detail the qualitative features of each pattern. Factors leading to resilience are identified and the contribution of play activity to repair is discussed.     

The impact of contextual family risks on prisoners' children's behavioural outcomes and the potential protective role of family functioning moderators

Abstract

Research suggests that children of prisoners have an increased risk for behavioural and emotional problems. However, in a resilience approach, one should expect heterogeneous outcomes and thus apply a contextualized perspective. As this is rarely acknowledged in empirical research, the present study sought to fill this gap using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing study on 801 children of imprisoned fathers. We explored the extent to which cumulative family risks measured during the first year of life (e.g., poverty and mental health problems) predicted behavioural outcomes at age 9 and whether potentially protective aspects of family functioning moderated the impact of these risk factors. Cumulative risk significantly predicted behavioural outcomes, but the associations were weak. No strong evidence of moderation was found. At low risk, mother–child closeness moderated behavioural outcomes. There was also some evidence of moderation by accumulated protective factors. Potential implications for policy and practice and challenges for further research are discussed.     

Structure with Engagement: Toward an Integration of Trauma and Relational Psychoanalytic Models in the Treatment of Dissociative Disorders

Trauma model approaches to the treatment of dissociative disorders may provide containment and direction and yet, these same approaches may be constricting and limit exploration. However, relational psychoanalytic approaches may allow for engagement and exploration while potentially failing to provide containment and structure. This article provides an overview of key elements of both models and considers the question of whether it is possible to creatively resolve theoretical and clinical tensions between trauma model and relational psychoanalytic responses to dissociation. A review of the history of the study of dissociation in the field of psychoanalysis and concerns about psychoanalytic practice in the context of dissociation is followed by comparing contrasting conceptualizations of the assumptions of normality, definitions of dissociation, theories of etiology, goals of treatment, and theorized mechanisms of action. The review ends with a discussion of potential possibilities for clinical integration.     

The specifi city of torture as trauma: The human wilderness when words fail1

The author attempts to situate the specifi city of torture‐understood as the product of political violence and of totalitarian states‐within the historical framework of the concept of trauma in psychoanalysis. When the mind and social ties are simultaneously affected, the intrapsychic and transpersonal aspects of the suffered damage intertwine in a complex and unique web. The author aims to dismantle the notion of victim, considering it both stigmatizing and inaccurate. The goal is not just to identify the after‐effects and the disabilities suffered by those affected by torture, but also to integrate their experiences and their narratives into a life project. Rather than individual psychopathology, this essay refl ects upon those phenomena of suggestion and hypnosis that are at work in human groups under ordinary conditions and that are exacerbated under social crises, following the Freudian axis developed in Group psychology and the analysis of the ego.     

The protective role of maternal posttraumatic growth and cognitive trauma processing among Palestinian mothers and infants

War survivors use multiple cognitive and emotional processes to protect their mental health from the negative impacts of trauma. Because mothers and infants may be especially vulnerable to trauma in conditions of war, it is urgent to determine which cognitive and emotional processes are effective for preventing negative trauma impacts.” This study examined whether mothers’ high posttraumatic growth (PTG) and positive posttraumatic cognitions (PTC) protected (a) their own mental health and (b) their infants’ stress regulation and sensorimotor and language development from the effects of war trauma. The participants were 511 Palestinian mothers and their infants living in the Gaza strip. The mothers were interviewed in their second trimester of pregnancy (T1) as well as when the infant was four months (T2) and twelve months (T3). Mothers reported posttraumatic growth (PTG; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996) at T1 and posttraumatic cognitions (PTCI; Foa et al., 1999) at T2. They also reported their exposure to traumatic war events both at T1 and T3 and described their mental health conditions (e.g., PTSD and/or depressive and dissociation symptoms) at T3. The Infant Behaviour Questionnaire (IBQ) was used to measure infants’ stress regulation at T2 and sensorimotor and language development at T3. The results, based on regression analyses with interaction terms between trauma and PTG, showed that high levels of traumatic war events were not associated with high levels of PTSD, depressive, or dissociation symptoms among mothers showing high levels of PTG. This suggests that PTG may protect maternal mental health from the effects of trauma. In turn, positive maternal PTCs appeared to protect the infants’ stress regulation from the effects of war trauma. The study concludes by discussing ways to develop and implement preventive interventions for mother-infant dyads in war conditions.     

The inter-generational transmission of trauma: The effects of abuse on the survivor's relationship with their children and on the children themselves

This paper explores some of the potential consequences of childhood abuse in adulthood, in terms of the effects on parenting, and on the child of the abuse survivor. Reference is made, and parallels drawn where appropriate, to the experiences of survivors of the Holocaust in respect of both these themes. the clinical experience of the author vis-à-vis survivors of abuse and parenting has strong similarities to some of the findings of those researching this subject from the perspective of the Holocaust. While the primary focus is on the experiences of survivors of childhood abuse these similarities and parallels are also acknowledged.     

The interaction between baseline trait anxiety and trauma exposure as predictor of post-trauma symptoms of anxiety and insomnia

In this study a prospective design was used to investigate the interaction between baseline trait anxiety and exposure to traumatic situations on post-trauma symptoms of anxiety and insomnia in a sample of Swedish peacekeeping soldiers serving in Kosovo. The result showed that pre-trauma trait anxiety interacted with exposure to traumatic situations predicting a higher post-trauma distress. Further, baseline trait anxiety and baseline symptoms of anxiety and insomnia predicted post-trauma symptoms of anxiety and insomnia. The results support a diathesis stress model in which high trait anxiety interacts with trauma exposure in the elicitation of anxiety-related distress but the study needs to be replicated before further conclusions can be drawn.     

The impact of error training and individual differences on training outcomes: an attribute-treatment interaction perspective

The authors examined the effectiveness of error training for trainees with different levels of cognitive ability, openness to experience, or conscientiousness. Participants (N = 181) were randomly assigned to control, error-encouragement, or error-avoidance conditions and trained to perform a decision-making simulation. Declarative knowledge, task performance, and self-efficacy were measured posttraining. Findings suggest the effectiveness of error training is dependent on the cognitive ability or dispositional traits of trainees. High cognitive ability or more open individuals benefit more from error-encouragement training than low cognitive ability or less open individuals. Conscientiousness has a negative effect on self-efficacy when trainees are encouraged to make errors.     

Road victim trauma: an investigation of the impact on the injured and bereaved*

Every day in the United Kingdom ten people are killed and between 900 and 1,000 injured on the roads and, consequently, the health of large numbers of the victims, relatives and friends are adversely affected. Yet despite the magnitude of the problem little has been done to assess the full impact of road crashes on those involved, or to identify the best ways to provide help and support. This paper describes the impact of road traffic incidents on a large group of injured and bereaved victims, who approached Road Peace (a national charity for road traffic victims) for support. The research that examined data collected over an eight-year period was able to identify the nature of the impact of the traumatic exposure of these victims. The paper goes on to examine the needs of the road crash victims and suggests ways that timely support and advice could help to reduce the levels of distress.     

Shedding new light on an old problem: The estimation of shadow sizes in children and adults

Two experiments using the 'projection of shadows' paradigm investigated multidimensional reasoning, implicit and explicit knowledge, and the nonlinearity concept in 5-, 9-, and 13-year-olds and adults. Participants estimated the resulting shadow lengths of differently sized objects, placed at varying distances from a light source. Experiment 1 (N=80) revealed that, on the group level, 5-year-olds took both object size and light-object distance into account when estimating shadow size. Moreover, half of the children in this age group even considered the subordinate distance dimension. In addition, we found a large discrepancy between implicit and explicit knowledge about shadows in 5-year-olds that decreased with age. Finally, only a minority of older participants and very few younger children recognized the nonlinear relationship between light-object distance and shadow size, suggesting domain dependence of the nonlinearity concept. Experiment 2 (N=20) predominately replicated the findings for 5-year-olds using slightly different stimuli.     

Cumulative Adversity as a Correlate of Posttraumatic Growth: The Effects of Multiple Traumas,Discrimination, and Sexual Harassment

While trauma is, by definition, a necessary precursor of posttraumatic growth, other aspects of individuals’ life experiences affect their ability to cope with trauma, foster resilience, and grow following adversity. Most research on posttraumatic growth overlooks the accumulation of trauma and sub-trauma stressors as possible predictors of growth. In addition, most research on cumulative adversity omits all but the most extreme examples of discrimination and sexual harassment stressors. This exploratory study of 46 university students with trauma histories used measures of posttraumatic growth, trauma, major (sub-trauma) life events, chronic stressors, sexual harassment, and discrimination to examine the relationship between cumulative adversity and the development of posttraumatic growth. We found that cumulative adversity is positively correlated with posttraumatic growth, and that there are important relationships between gender, race, and cumulative adversity. A hypothesized curvilinear relationship between cumulative adversity and posttraumatic growth was not supported. These findings suggest that successfully coping with some amount of sub-trauma adversity may facilitate the development of posttraumatic growth. Additionally, sexual harassment and discrimination were closely linked to the number of chronic stressors; thus, they need to be included in measures of cumulative adversity to more fully represent the experiences of marginalized groups.