Neighborhood Violence and Coparent Conflict: Interactive Influence on Child Psychosocial Adjustment

The interactive influence of neighborhood violence and coparent conflict on child psychosocial adjustment was examined in a sample of 117 low-income, inner-city African American families. Data were collected and analyzed cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Lower levels of coparent conflict buffered girls, but not boys, from the detrimental effects of living in neighborhoods characterized by high levels of violence. In both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, lower levels of coparent conflict, relative to higher levels, protected girls from depressive symptoms and aggressive behaviors in the context of higher levels of neighborhood violence. Clinical implications of the findings and directions for future research are discussed.     

The Role of Parenting Programmes in the Prevention of Child Maltreatment

Child maltreatment is a major worldwide concern and continuing high rates of abuse demand action. This article examines the role of parenting programmes as a strategy to prevent child maltreatment in the population as a whole and also as a targeted intervention for parents who have abused, or are at risk of abusing, their children. We argue that a blend of universal and targeted interventions is needed to reduce the prevalence of child maltreatment. Parenting interventions that concurrently target positive parenting and effective child management skills, dysfunctional parental attributions, and increasing parents' capacity to regulate their emotions are particularly useful. A variant of the Triple P—Positive Parenting Program, known as Pathways Triple P, is discussed to illustrate the value of this approach. Contextual factors that need to be addressed in working with child protection cases are also discussed. The role of training and supervision is discussed in the context of disseminating evidence‐based parenting programmes, and future directions for research are presented.     

Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale: Development and Initial Validation of a Parent Report Measure

This study examined the psychometric characteristics of the Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale (CAPES). The CAPES was designed as a brief outcome measure in the evaluation of both public health and individual or group parenting interventions. The scale consists of a 30‐item intensity scale with two subscales measuring children's behaviour problems and emotional maladjustment and a 20‐item self‐efficacy scale that measures parent's self‐efficacy in managing specific child problem behaviours. A sample of 347 parents of 2–12‐year‐old children participated in the study. Psychometric evaluation of the CAPES revealed that both the intensity and self‐efficacy scales had good internal consistency, as well as satisfactory convergent and discriminant validity. Potential uses of the measure and implications for future validation studies are discussed.     

抚养困难与教养行为的关系及其调节因素

本研究考察了567名2-5岁幼儿母亲的抚养困难与教养行为的关系,并进一步探讨了在高抚养困难情景下母亲教养行为的可能调节因素.结果发现(1)幼儿母亲的抚养困难感受总分与其教养行为的各个侧面均有非常显著的相关,母亲抚养困难程度越高,则其敏感性、参与性、积极情感及对儿童发展的指导性均较低,而其对儿童的消极情感较多;(2)回归分析表明,来自儿童侧面的"积极强化缺乏"、"多动/注意分散"、"不良心境"与"过度要求"以及来自母亲侧面的"缺乏依恋"、"缺乏能力感"等方面的抚养困难是预测母亲教养行为的重要因素;(3)在母亲抚养困难较高的情况下,夫妻双方的受教育水平分别对母亲教养行为的一些侧面具有调节作用.     

The Relationship Between Parenting Style and Children's Adjustment: The Parents' Perspective

We examined the relationship between authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles and socio-emotional adjustment in elementary school children as reported from the parents' perspective. Mothers of first through fifth graders provided information about parenting style as well as children's competencies and problem behaviors. Teachers provided ratings of children's adjustment for a subset of the participants. Results indicated that authoritative parenting was associated negatively with parent- and teacher-rated maladaptive behavior, and positively with indicators of healthy adjustment. Correlations between authoritarian parenting and adjustment were either small or non-significant. Regression analyses indicated that authoritative parenting was more predictive of children's competence than maladaptation (22% versus 10% of variance). The effects of parenting style on adjustment were not moderated by demographic variables, such as the child's gender, grade level, ethnicity, and family income.     

Child Psychosocial Adjustment and Parenting in Families Affected by Maternal HIV/AIDS

Child adjustment and parenting were examined in twenty-three 9–16-year-old youth from families affected by maternal HIV infection and 20 same-age peers whose mothers were not infected. Children whose mothers were seropositive reported significantly more externalizing problems. Infected mothers reported less age-appropriate supervision/monitoring relative to non-infected mothers. Better mother-child relationship quality and less impairment in parental supervision/monitoring of age-appropriate youth behaviors were associated with fewer externalizing difficulties among the HIV-positive group only. Similarly, only among HIV-infected mothers was refraining from engaging in inconsistent disciplinary tactics associated with lower reports of internalizing and externalizing problems. These data highlight the promise of programs targeting parenting skills to prevent or ameliorate child difficulties.     

Neighborhood Violence and Psychosocial Adjustment in Low-Income Urban African American Children: Physical Symptoms as a Marker of Child Adjustment

We examined the association between neighborhood violence and three domains of psychosocial adjustment in low-income, urban African American children: internalizing, externalizing, and physical symptoms. Based on anecdotal and empirical evidence, it was hypothesized that, relative to internalizing and externalizing problems, a stronger association would emerge between physical symptoms and neighborhood violence. Mother-reported neighborhood violence was associated with child-reported physical symptoms, but not internalizing or externalizing symptoms. Child-reported neighborhood violence was associated with child-reported internalizing, externalizing, and physical symptoms; however, neighborhood violence accounted for a greater percentage of variance in physical symptoms than the other two symptom domains. Our findings were not moderated by the age or gender of the child. We discuss the importance of physical symptoms as a marker of child adjustment in low-income, urban, African American children, as well directions for future research.     

Pathways Between Social Support,Family Well Being,Quality of Parenting,and Child Resilience: What We Know

We contribute to the theoretical and research knowledge base regarding the pathways between parental social support, family well being, quality of parenting, and the development of child resilience in families with a child with serious emotional problems. Little conceptual development has been done that provides a theoretical framework for studying the relationships among these variables. We identify key findings from social support theory and research, including the impact of social support on family well being and the parents’ capacity to parent, and the experience of parental social support in families with a child with a disability. We review the constructs of family well being, quality of parenting, and child resilience. Further, we explain the pathways between parental social support, family well being, quality of parenting, and child resilience in families with a child with serious emotional problems. Key variables of the model and the nature of their inter-relationships are described. Social support is constructed as a protective mechanism with main and buffering effects that can impact family well being, quality of parenting, and child resilience at a number of junctures. The conceptual model’s implications for future theory development and research are discussed.     

Paternal Child-Rearing Style and Child Social Anxiety: Investigation of Child Perceptions and Actual Father Behavior

This study examined associations among perceived and actual father behavior and child social anxiety. Forty-eight children (22 high socially anxious, 26 low socially anxious) completed self-report measures of social anxiety, general anxiety, and depression. Children also completed a measure of perceived parental style and subsequently collaborated with their fathers on a challenging task (origami). After controlling for general anxiety and depression, fathers of high socially anxious children exhibited more controlling behavior during the origami task; high and low socially anxious children, however, did not differ behaviorally from one another. Perceptions of father child-rearing style did not differ as a function of child social anxiety, nor were significant relations found between perceived parenting and specific father behaviors. Findings underscore the importance of assessing various types of internalizing symptoms (i.e., controlling for shared construct variance), obtaining children's perceptions of parental style in conjunction with conducting behavioral observations, and including fathers in psychopathology research.     

Parenting Sensitivity,Parental Depression and Child Health: The Mediational Role of Parental Self-Efficacy

This paper discusses the theoretical role of parental self-efficacy, or parents' beliefs in their competence and effectiveness in the parental role, as a mediator of relations between parent–child risk and parental sensitivity. Evidence is marshalled from studies of parenting in the contexts of maternal depression and child health risk to support the premise that parent–child characteristics affect parental sensitivity indirectly via their more direct impact on parental feelings of efficacy, and that parenting efficacy represents the ‘final common pathway’ in the prediction of parenting sensitivity. Also considered in this working model are specific social-contextual factors as independent contributors to parenting efficacy and as possible moderators of relations between parent–child characteristics and self-efficacy. Implications for intervention are discussed. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

气质与父母养育对儿童社会适应的交互作用:代表性理论及其证据

最佳适配理论、素质-压力模型、差别易感模型从不同视角阐述了气质、养育方式在儿童社会适应行为中的交互作用机制。最佳适配理论强调气质特质与父母养育方式的良好匹配能促进儿童的社会适应,而不良匹配则会带来适应问题。素质-压力模型强调在不利父母养育条件下,具有"风险"气质特质的儿童更容易出现适应不良,而对"弹性"气质的儿童影响不大。差别易感模型则认为儿童"易感"的气质特质在良好的抚养条件下表现得"更好",而在不利的抚养环境中表现得"更差"。围绕三种代表性理论及其实证研究结果,对当前最新研究结果进行了分析和总结,进一步细分了儿童社会化过程中的风险因素和保护性因素。从气质与积极养育方式的交互作用、养育过程中父母角色分工的差异,以及气质与养育方式动态作用机制三个方面指出了将来进一步探索的方向。     

Influences of Marital Conflict on Child Adjustment: Review of Theory and Research

This review summarizes the literature on the relationship between marital conflict and child maladjustment with an emphasis on variables that qualify, explain the association, or both. Following a historical review, the modest findings on the strength of the association between marital conflict and child maladjustment is explored. The definition of marital conflict is clarified through specification of its various dimensions (frequency, intensity, content, resolution). The role of variables that serve to moderate and/or mediate the relationship between marital conflict and child maladjustment are elaborated. Mediating models include exposure theories (Modeling, Cognitive–Contextual effects: appraisal of threat and blame, and Emotional Insecurity) and changes in the parent–child relationship (Spillover). Variables that moderate or qualify the relationship include children's cognitions and behaviors, contextual factors, and demographic differences. A model is presented summarizing these mechanisms. Research recommendations are proposed and the clinical implications of this literature are addressed.     

Mentoring Youth with Psychiatric Disorders: The Impact on Child and Parent Functioning

ABSTRACT

This study examined the effectiveness of a behavioral mentoring program aimed at serving youth with psychiatric disorders. Participants included 30 youth (8–12 years old) receiving services in a mentoring program for a mental health population and 30 wait-listed youth and their maternal caregivers. Participating in mentoring services was related to higher family functioning across a number of domains including child behavior, parenting stress, perceived parent social support, and perceived parent-child relationship quality. As predicted, parenting stress mediated the relationship between mentoring and children's externalizing behavior problems. Results suggest that mentoring services may be a useful adjunct service for highly stressed families with children with emotional and behavioral disorders.     

Mother-Adolescent Relationship Quality and Autonomy as Predictors of Psychosocial Adjustment Among African American Adolescents

This study investigated the role of mother-adolescent relationship quality and autonomy in the psychosocial outcomes in a sample of African American adolescents drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The results indicated that positive mother-adolescent relationship quality and greater autonomy were associated with higher self-esteem, fewer depressive symptoms, and less delinquent behavior. Moreover, adolescents who were older, female, or from households with less income reported more depressive symptoms. In addition, adolescents who were younger or female reported fewer delinquent behaviors. Being male was associated with higher self-esteem. Adolescents’ age, family income, and mother-adolescent relationship quality did not moderate relations between autonomy and the outcome variables.     

Effects of Peer Victimization on Child Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties: The Moderating Role of Parenting

While the harmful effects of peer victimization have been well documented, there is limited research on the parental behaviors as potential moderators of victimization and child mental health outcomes. The current study examined the moderating effects of parental warmth, parental rejection, and child gender on the relation between peer victimization and child mental health difficulties, i.e., emotional and behavioral difficulties. Participants included 425 Chinese elementary school children in grades 3 to 6 (M_age?=?10.59, SD_age?=?1.11), who self-reported on peer victimization experiences, perceived parental warmth and rejection, and mental health difficulties. Data were collected at two-time points, six months apart. Victimization and parental rejection positively predicted child emotional and behavioral difficulties, while parental warmth negatively predicted child emotional and behavioral difficulties at both time points. Victimization significantly predicted emotional difficulties (at time 1) and behavioral difficulties (at time 2) for girls, but not boys. In addition, gender moderated the interaction of victimization and parental rejection in predicting child behavioral difficulties at time 1, i.e., parental rejection exacerbated the effects of peer victimization on behavioral difficulties for girls only. Findings highlight the need to target bullying prevention efforts, and underscore the importance of evaluating peer and parental factors while working with children with emotional and behavioral issues.

     

Encouraging Bystanders to Promote Positive Parenting and Prevent Child Maltreatment in Retail Settings: Results of an Exploratory Qualitative Study

Community-level bystander approaches with media campaigns have successfully reduced sexual violence, but these programs have not been developed for child maltreatment prevention. This study informs the development of such programs in retail settings. Data were collected using focus groups with parents (n = 29) and surveys with child abuse experts (n = 10). Participants were asked how retail environments and employees could support parents during shopping excursions and what employees should do if they witnessed a concerning interaction. Participants highlighted (a) the need for in-depth training of employees to engage with parents and children to promote positive interactions and intervene in concerning situations; (b) the importance of the built environment (i.e., physical design and layout) to reduce stress and establish positive social norms through store-wide messaging; and (c) the role of parents in establishing expectations and actively including children in shopping. Future research should test approaches to training and engaging retail employees as supportive bystanders.     

亲子冲突与青少年社会适应的关系

从北京市四所普通中学选取 82 9名初一、初二、高一和高二学生为被试 ,采取匿名的方式让被试报告自己在过去半年内分别与父亲和母亲在学业、做家务、交友、花钱、日常生活安排、外表、家庭成员关系和隐私等八个方面发生冲突的频率 ,以及自己的问题行为、抑郁和社交焦虑的情况 ,以此探讨亲子冲突与青少年社会适应之间的关系。结果发现 :(1 )父子和母子在冲突内容上有很大的差别 ;母子冲突多于父子冲突 ,且母子冲突和父子冲突的侧重点也有所不同。 (2 )在学业和生活方面 ,发生亲子冲突的青少年远多于没有亲子冲突的青少年 ,但在其余六个方面却是没有亲子冲突的青少年多于发生亲子冲突的青少年。在发生亲子冲突的青少年中 ,与双亲均发生冲突的青少年最多 ,其次是只与母亲发生冲突的青少年 ,与父亲发生冲突的青少年最少。 (3 )亲子冲突与青少年的抑郁和问题行为具有较为一致的关系 ,即与双亲发生冲突的青少年所表现的问题行为和抑郁最多 ,其次是与单亲发生冲突的青少年 ,问题行为和抑郁表现最少的是与双亲均无冲突的青少年 ;但亲子冲突与青少年社交焦虑之间的关系并没有一致的趋势。     

The Psychosocial Construction of Parenting: An Examination of Parenting Goals and Narratives in Relation to Well-Being

In two studies, we examined the implications psychosocial constructions of parenting hold for an understanding of well-being. In studies 1 (N = 504) and 2 (N = 98) participants provided a list of personal goals and narratives about the experience of becoming parents, respectively. In both studies, measures of well-being were also completed. Goals were categorized on the basis of whether they contained reference to parenting as well as agentic and communal motivation, whereas stories were coded for themes of exploration and resolution. In Study 1, the proportion of parenting goals related positively with well-being, although this effect was rendered non-significant after accounting for the communal motivation of parenting goals. In Study 2, themes of exploration and resolution in parents’ narratives positively predicted well-being. Collectively, these results provide intimation of parenting’s “meaningfulness” within the current socio-cultural context.