论弗洛伊德的焦虑理论

精神分析是最早研究焦虑的心理学流派,精神分析学派创始人弗洛伊德对焦虑有深刻而系统的论述。但受其时代背景和独特的研究视角影响,其焦虑理论仍然存在可修正之处。     

The multidimensionality of test anxiety: A test of different models

Abstract

Confirmatory factor analysis was employed to test the multidimensional structure of test anxiety. Starting with the traditional two-factor model, it was of interest whether additional dimensions could still be represented by a single higher-order factor of test anxiety or whether the additional dimensions represented correlates of test anxiety. The Revised Test Anxiety (RTA) scale and the German Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI-G) were combined collecting data from a binational sample of 218 American and 218 German university students. Considering the statistical and theoretical aspects of model fit, they indicated that a model consisting of three primary factors (worry, emotionality, and lack of confidence) fit the data best. While distraction and self-efficacy may be regarded as correlates of test anxiety, lack of confidence was substantiated as a component of test anxiety. Implications for the conceptualization of the content domain and hence area of test anxiety were discussed.     

A consciousness-sampling analysis of test anxiety and performance

In order to evaluate cognitive-interference, reassertion, and reaction-to-performance models of test anxiety, 82 students completed the Test Anxiety Scale, provided state measures of anxiety just before and after a course examination, described their preparation for the test, and reported thought content and state anxiety up to six times during the test. Test Anxiety Scale scores were predictive of pre- and posttest state anxiety but not performance or problem-solving thought frequency during the test. Thought content was significantly but weakly correlated with performance, which was well correlated with posttest state anxiety but not with pretest anxiety. Pretest state anxiety was virtually uncorrelated with posttest state anxiety, with the correlations gradually declining during the test. Question-answering thought content correlated inversely with anxiety during the test. There was no group for whom anxiety appeared to facilitate performance. Preparation correlated only with performance. The pattern of results appears inconsistent with a cognitive-interference interpretation of test anxiety and suggests that in the naturalistic setting used, anxiety is more clearly an effect than a cause of poor performance.     

A test of the melioration theory of matching

Melioration theory entails that matching in concurrent schedules occurs because the subjects equalize the local reinforcement rates (reinforcers received for each alternative divided by the time allocated to each alternative). The role of local reinforcement rates was tested by using multiple schedules in which one component involved an alternative with a high absolute rate of reinforcement and a low local reinforcement rate while the second component involved an alternative with a low absolute rate and a high local rate. These alternatives were then presented simultaneously in probe trials to determine preference between them. Contrary to melioration, the absolute rate of reinforcement, not the local rate, was the controlling variable.     

A test of the neo-behaviouristic theory of extinction

A test between Moltz's and Deutsch's theory of extinction was devised. Animals were trained to go to the same goal-box via two different paths. Then they were divided into two groups. The first found the goal-box empty, the second found the entrance into the goal-box blocked. The choices of the animals on the next trial were observed. The results are those predicted by Deutsch.     

Effects of performance anxiety on effort and performance in rock climbing: A test of processing efficiency theory

Abstract

Three studies examined the effort and performance of rock climbers in the context of processing efficiency theory. Anxiety was manipulated by different means in the three studies. In each study, the effort due only to the physical exertion of climbing was controlled for. Anxiety, effort, and performance were measured via self-report, an integrated heart rate measure, and belayer observation. Consistent with processing efficiency theory, the results showed that higher levels of anxiety were usually associated with higher levels of effort and commensurately higher levels of performance. However, the results also suggested that cognitive anxiety may not be the prime determinant of the effort and performance changes observed. Finally, the results suggested that other individual difference variables may play an important part in determining the extent to which individuals may be able to make use of anxiety-induced effort.     

A test of the gravity lens theory.

Naito and Cole [1994, in Contributions to Mathematical Psychology: Psychometrics and Methodology Eds G H Fischer and D Laming (New York: Springer)] provide a configuration which they describe as the Gravity Lens illusion. In this configuration, four small dots are presented in proximity to four large disks, and one is asked to compare the slope of an imaginary line which connects one pair of dots with the slope of a line which connects the other pair. In fact the slopes are the same, i.e. their axes are parallel, but because of the positioning of the large disks they appear to be at different orientations. Naito and Cole propose that the perceptual bias is analogous to the effects of gravity on the metrics of physical space, such that mental projections in the vicinity of a disk (or an open circle) are distorted just as the path of light is bent as it passes a massive body such as a star. Here we provide a simple test of this concept by having subjects judge alignments of dots which lie near tangents to a circle. Subjects were asked to project straight lines through pairs of stimulus dots, selecting and marking points in open space which were collinear with each pair. As would be predicted by the Gravity Lens theory, the locations selected by subjects were displaced from straight lines. However, the error magnitudes were substantially larger for judgments of dot pairs which had an oblique alignment, as compared with dot pairs which were aligned with a cardinal axis. This differential of effect as a function of stimulus orientation is not predicted by the gravity concept.     

A longitudinal study of the intrusiveness of cognitions in test anxiety

Medical students who had to undergo an important set of examinations were asked to fill out two questionnaires, the first early in the term, the second 1 or 2 wk before the exams. Students whose anxiety increased substantially between the two questionnaire administrations reported that their thoughts had become more intrusive on a number of parameters including distress, frequency and dismissability. Subjects whose anxiety increased only moderately or not at all reported correspondingly smaller changes in intrusiveness. There was considerable stability in reported cognitions over time, but changes in anxiety were related to changes in reports of thought content. The perceived probability of negative outcomes did not vary over time. These results indicate that changes in anxiety levels over time are related to several parameters of intrusiveness as well as thought content.     

Japanese education: A context for test anxiety

In this article the context of Japanese education is examined to highlight those aspects most identified with the issue of testing and test anxiety. The unique organization of the Japanese formal educational system is explored as well as its governance and administration. The centralized nature of Japanese education contributes to the hierarchical nature of the system and the centrality of both local and national examinations. The existence of a parallel, less regulated educational system, generally referred to as juku, is also discussed thereby revealing the complex mix of factors that influence and shape the testing environment.     

Binocular fusion: A test of the suppression theory

Binocular fusion may be due to interocular inhibitory suppression, an hypothesis difficult to evaluate by phenomenal inspection. A test probe method (reaction time to a light pulse) was used to measure visual sensitivity during binocular rivalry and fusion. The absence of inhibitory effects during fusion fails to support the suppression theory of fusion.     

Binocular fusion: A test of the suppression theory

Binocular fusion may be due to interocular inhibitory suppression, an hypothesis difficult to evaluate by phenomenal inspection. A test probe method (reaction time to a light pulse) was used to measure visual sensitivity during binocular rivalry and fusion. The absence of inhibitory effects during fusion fai Is to support the suppression theory of fusion.