The representation of ontological category concepts as affected by healthy aging: normative data and theoretical implications

Attributes associated with concept representations, such as familiarity, typicality, and age of acquisition, have been shown to be important influences on lexical-semantic processing. In most previous studies of healthy and pathological aging, these attributes are not equated for younger and older adults separately on the stimuli used. In this study, normative data were collected to test whether there exist any age differences in these attributes. The results demonstrate that the ratings given by younger and older adults on natural and manmade category items correlated positively. However, age differences were also apparent, whereby older adults provided higher ratings overall than younger adults. Suggestions and hypotheses are presented to explain this pattern of age differences, which relate to how category concepts may be represented by healthy younger and older adults. Also, the possible implications for these differential age ratings on lexical-semantic processing are discussed. The age differences apparent in this study demonstrate the need to consider age-appropriate normative ratings in the selection of stimuli for use in lexical-semantic processing studies of aging, and the normative data presented provide a means of equating category stimuli. The complete list of all the means is available at www.psychonomic.org/archive.     

Comprehension and belief structure

Abstract.— A reader's belief structure is suggested to affect the way he processes incoming information. It is analyzed in terms of what propositions the reader regards as true (the truth values) and of how the reader discriminates between propositions as to truth value (the discrimination index). In a study on 20 psychology students, the comprehension task involved matching single statements to a previously read text. The statements represented two different ideas, whereas the text represented only one. The subjects' belief structure in terms of statements accepted (truth value) and statements discriminated as to truth value (discrimination index) was related to the way in which they matched the same Statements to the previously read text (comprehension). Truth values and discrimination indices together were found to account for 39% of the interindividual variation in comprehension after the first reading and for 50 % of that variation after the second reading. It is suggested that a reader, when confronted with a new text, arrives at the most probable interpretation of that text by turning to his own belief structure.     

Visual representation in analogical problem solving

Analogical reasoning has been shown to be effective in the process of solving Dunker’s radiation problem. The spatial nature of the solution to this problem suggests that a visually represented analogue should be particularly effective. However, recent work seems to indicate that a visual analogue does not assist in solving the radiation problem. This paper reports a detailed experimental analysis of the effectiveness of visually represented analogues to the radiation problem. The results show that visual analogues can be effective ff they represent the appropriate features of the problem-solution relationship. The paper also reports on the use of an appropriate visual representation within the problem as a facilitator of analogical reasoning. The results indicate that a visual representation within the problem can act as a facilitator of analogical reasoning, possibly by acting as a retrieval cue.     

Experience and problem representation in statistics

This research investigated experience level differences in problem representation in statistics. A triad judgment task was designed so that source problems shared either surface similarity (story narrative) or structural (inferential level) features (t test, correlation, or chi-square) with the target problem. Graduate students with varying levels of experience in statistics were asked to choose which source problem "goes best" with the target problem for each triad. Given a choice between a problem that shares surface-level characteristics and one that shares inferential-level characteristics, students who had taken 0 to 4 courses in statistics tended to represent problems on the basis of surface-level features. Students who had more than 4 courses did not consistently make choices on the basis of surface-level features, nor did they consistently rely on structural features. However, all students with statistics course backgrounds noticed structural features when competition between different types of features was eliminated. The role of surface and structural features in determining problem representations is discussed.     

The structure of analog representation

This paper develops a theory of analog representation. We first argue that the mark of the analog is to be found in the nature of a representational system's interpretation function, rather than in its vehicles or contents alone. We then develop the rulebound structure theory of analog representation, according to which analog systems use interpretive rules that map syntactic structural features onto semantic structural features. The theory involves three degree-theoretic measures that capture three independent ways in which a system can be more or less analog. We explain how our theory improves upon prior accounts of analog representation, provides plausible diagnoses for novel challenge cases, extends to hybrid systems that are partially analog and partially symbolic, and accounts for some of the advantages and disadvantages of representing analogically versus symbolically.     

The effect of problem size on representation in deductive problem solving

Adult Ss attempted to solve logical deductive reasoning problems that varied systematically in amount of information presented. Methods Ss employed in representing the problem were classified into five main types or modes. The proportion of Ss using a matrix mode of problem representation increased moderately with problems containing large amounts of information. The performance of Ss using a matrix mode of representation suggested that this advantage is related to ease of applying and/or storing the results of logical operations in such a problem space rather than to any facilitative effects of encoding processes. Specific limits to normal processing are hypothesized.     

Bodily structure and body representation

Synthese - This paper is concerned with representational explanations of how one experiences and acts with one’s body as an integrated whole. On the standard view, accounts of bodily...     

Hierarchical structure in perceptual representation

A theoretical framework for perceptual representation is presented which proposes that information is coded in hierarchical networks of nonverbal propositions. The hierarchical structure of the representations implies selective organization: Some subsets of a figure will be encoded as integral, structural units of that figure, while others will not. A context-sensitive metric for the “goodness” of a part within a figure is developed, corresponding to the probability that the subset will be encoded as a structural unit. Converging evidence supporting this position is presented from four different tasks using simple, straight-line figures. The tasks studied are (a) dividing figures into “natural” parts, (b) rating the “goodness” of parts within figures, (c) timed verification of parts within figures, and (d) timed mental synthesis of spatially separated parts into unitary figures. The results are discussed in terms of the proposed theory of representation, the processes that operate on those representations, and the general implications of the data for perceptual theories.     

Understanding as representation manipulability

Claims pertaining to understanding are made in a variety of contexts and ways. As a result, few in the philosophical literature have made an attempt to precisely characterize the state that is y understanding x. This paper builds an account that does just that. The account is motivated by two main observations. First, understanding x is somehow related to being able to manipulate x. Second, understanding is a mental phenomenon, and so what manipulations are required to be an understander must only be mental manipulations. Combining these two insights, the paper builds an account (URM) of understanding as a certain representational capacity—specifically, understanding x involves possessing a representation of x that could be manipulated in useful ways. By tying understanding to representation, the account correctly identifies that understanding is a fundamentally cognitive achievement. However, by also demanding that which representations count as understanding-conferring be determined by their practical effects, URM captures the insight that understanding is vitally connected to practice. URM is fully general, and can apply equally well to understanding states of affairs, understanding events, and even understanding people and works of art. The ultimate test of URM is its applicability in actual scientific and philosophical discourse. To that end the paper discusses the importance of understanding in the philosophy of science, psychology, and computer science.     

Vernier acuity as affected by target length and separation

Vernier acuity was measured for vertical lines of different lengths; the threshold (about 4 sec of arc) was almost as good for the shortest stimuli (1 min 20 sec squares) as for the longest (21 min 20 sec × 1 min 20 sec rectangles) and did not change when two round dots were shown in positions corresponding to the squares. The threshold for the two dots measured in terms of minimum detectable lateral offset increased when the vertical separation between the dots increased, but, when replotted in terms of the angle of tilt between them with respect to vertical, the threshold improved with dot separation; moreover, at asymptote, the threshold was comparable to that obtained for detecting that an actual line was tilted out of vertical. Our data suggest that, in performing the vernier task, Ss do not extrapolate the edges of the vernier elements; instead, they judge the deviation of the inner ends of the stimuli from verticality. This hypothesis explains the effect of increasing separation between vernier elements and also accounts for other types of acuity, such as the detection of curvature.     

The word order problem in agrammatism : I. Comprehension

The results of a picture-pointing comprehension test show that agrammatic aphasics have difficulty understanding sentences in which the underlying semantic roles are marked by the order of noun phrases around a verbal element. Agrammatic patients performed poorly on reversible constructions involving spatial prepositions (e.g., “The square is above the circle”) and verbs (e.g., “The dancer applauds the clown”). These results have significance for the interpretation of the underlying disturbance in agrammatism—whether the deficit is syntactic or purely phonological.     

Children's time perception as affected by order of stimulus presentation

Two groups of 5- to 6-yr.-old children estimated the time required to view 15 color slides containing an assortment of familiar objects. In one group, the pictures appeared in categorical order. A second group viewed the same 15 slides in a random order. The results showed that, although picture-recall was similar for the two groups, children in the category group estimated significantly longer durations than subjects in the random condition. The findings were discussed in the context of Ornstein's 1969 storage size hypothesis.     

Linda问题的表象-命题双表征解释视角探究

本文首先提出了Linda问题的表象-命题双表征这一新的解释视角。该视角认为,Linda问题基于表象表征和命题表征可以有两种不同的解读与表征方式;而不同的被试在Linda问题上可能分别采取了上述表征方式之一;但由于Linda问题的特殊性,大多数被试采用了表象表征;大多数被试的这一表征取向则可能是所谓谬误判断出现的原因。本文通过4项研究,让被试在基于表象表征设计的转述版本与基于命题表征设计的转述版间选择接近自身理解的版本;并考察了将Linda问题修改成更符合命题表征的数学化表达形式能否降低所谓谬误水平;还考察了增加促使被试运用命题表征的排序项"Linda是全人类中的一员"能否降低所谓谬误水平。结果显示,在转述版本选择上,大多数被试选择了基于表象表征设计的版本;而上文所指的两个修正版Linda问题则都降低了被试的所谓谬误水平。这些结果支持了本文所提的视角。