Conflict frequency with mothers and fathers from middle childhood to late adolescence: within- and between-families comparisons

The authors examined siblings' dyadic and differential conflict frequency with mothers and fathers from 7 to 19 years of age. Participants were first- and second-borns from 201 families who reported their conflict with each parent in 4 home interviews spaced over 5 years. Multilevel models examining trajectories of conflict frequency across age and year of study revealed that (a) consistent with a spillover hypothesis, elevation in parent-offspring conflict frequency was timed to firstborns' transition to adolescence for both siblings; and (b) consistent with a learning-from-experience hypothesis, there was no increase in conflict frequency at second-borns' transition to adolescence. These findings highlight the importance of studying the development of parent-offspring conflict within the larger family system.     

Low Maternal Warmth Mediates the Relationship Between Emotional Neglect and Callous-Unemotional Traits Among Male Juvenile Offenders

Callous-unemotional traits (CU) are thought to be the developmental precursor to adult psychopathy, and identify antisocial youth at risk for persistent, aggressive conduct problems. Accumulating research supports the importance of parenting factors in the development of CU traits. The overlapping but distinct constructs, parental neglect and low warmth, are both associated with CU/psychopathic traits; however, research is yet to examine the relative contribution of these constructs. The purpose of the present study was to examine the unique contributions of parental neglect and low warmth to CU traits among 227 incarcerated male juvenile offenders (M?=?15.73, SD?=?1.27 years). Results indicated that low levels of maternal warmth were more strongly associated with CU traits than emotional and physical neglect. Maternal warmth also significantly mediated the association between emotional neglect and CU traits. Findings from this cross-sectional study suggest that parental neglect influences CU traits at least partly through experiences with unresponsive and emotionally “cold” parenting. The findings also support a movement within the field towards addressing parental warmth as a treatment target for antisocial youth with CU traits.     

Perceived parental warmth and adjustment among Ethiopian adolescents

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between adolescents’ perception of parental warmth and their self-esteem, school adjustment and depression symptoms. Data were collected from 809 adolescents (female=47%; mean age=16.8 years; SD=1.58) from four different high schools in Ethiopia. The data were analysed for differences in perceived parental warmth and adjustment by gender. Results suggest higher levels of parental warmth to be associated with comparatively lower school adjustment and depressive symptoms as well as higher self-esteem in girls rather than boys. A gendered effect seems to explain parent warmth influences of the personal and school adjustment of Ethiopian adolescents.     

The Mediating Roles of Adolescent Disclosure and Parental Knowledge in the Association Between Parental Warmth and Delinquency Among Korean Adolescents

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between parental warmth and adolescent delinquency, the potential mediating roles of adolescent disclosure and parental knowledge, and gender differences in such association among Korean adolescents. We hypothesized that (1) parental warmth would be significantly and negatively associated with delinquency, (2) adolescent disclosure and parental knowledge would mediate the association between parental warmth and adolescent delinquency, and (3) the association between parental warmth and adolescent delinquency mediated through adolescent disclosure and parental knowledge would be stronger for adolescent girls than boys. Using a sample of 3125 Korean adolescents from nationally representative and longitudinal data (Korea Youth Panel Survey), results from path analyses demonstrated that findings were consistent with US samples, suggesting a negative association between parental warmth and adolescent delinquency. Further, when Korean adolescents perceived parents to be warmer, they were more likely to disclose personal information to their parents. In turn, higher levels of disclosure were associated with higher levels of parental knowledge about their adolescent children’s activities. Finally, tests of gender differences suggested that parental warmth was more closely associated with adolescent disclosure among girls than boys. Results supported a process model through which parents may shape adolescent children’s delinquency.     

二孩家庭父母偏爱的特点及其与青少年抑郁的关系

对1655名来自二孩家庭的青少年进行调查,以考察二孩家庭中父母偏爱的特点及其与青少年抑郁的关系。结果发现：（1）父母偏爱水平较低,且父亲偏爱和母亲偏爱不存在显著差异。（2）父母偏爱存在性别和出生次序差异,男孩报告父母更偏爱自己,女孩报告父母更偏爱同胞;头胎子女报告父亲更偏爱自己,母亲更偏爱同胞,二胎子女则相反。（3）父母偏爱对青少年抑郁有显著影响,且为U型曲线关系,即当父母偏爱同胞或中高程度偏爱自己时,青少年抑郁水平均较高;当父母较低程度偏爱自己时,青少年抑郁水平最低。说明二孩家庭中不存在严重的父母偏爱,但父母偏爱会对青少年发展产生消极影响。     

Anger and Children’s Socioemotional Development: Can Parenting Elicit a Positive Side to a Negative Emotion?

This study examined the role of anger in infancy and its interaction with maternal warmth in predicting children’s socioemotional development. Participants included a demographically diverse sample of 316 mothers and children from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN) study. Infants were followed across 3 waves of data collection from birth through 5?years of age. Mothers reported on infant anger when children were approximately 4?months of age. Maternal warmth was assessed via observation at both 4?months and 2?years. Children’s socioemotional outcomes were assessed at age 5, and included a direct assessment of delay of gratification and maternal reports of internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Anger in infancy significantly predicted higher levels of internalizing and externalizing behaviors at age 5. A main effect of anger on delay of gratification was not supported. However, anger in infancy moderated the association between maternal warmth and delay of gratification, such that only high-anger infants benefited from high maternal warmth. Similar interactive effects were not supported for problem behaviors. These results provide modest support for the differential susceptibility hypothesis, which proposes that highly reactive children are more susceptible to environmental risks and assets than other children. Specifically, findings suggest that although anger can increase children’s vulnerability to problem behaviors, it can also be a motivating factor for self-regulation in the presence of supportive parenting.     

The effects of perceived parental rearing style on the development of Type A pattern

The aetiological antecedents of the Type A pattern have not been studied widely. In the present study the effects of parental rearing practices on the development of Type A pattern were evaluated. Perceived parental rearing style was assessed by the EMBU and Type A pattern by the JAS. Subjects were drawn from a random sample of residents (older than 21 years) of a Dutch community. Results suggested that a significant amount of variance of Type A behaviour can be accounted for by perceived parental characteristics, especially rejection and lack of emotional warmth. It is suggested that lack of emotional warmth and negative evaluation of children by their parents may lead to an internalized maladaptive cognitive set in the children which may be a developmental antecedent for eliciting the competitiveness, achievement striving, and sense of time urgency characteristic of Type A adults.     

Process and context: Longitudinal effects of the interactions between parental involvement,parental warmth,and SES on academic achievement

Parents' involvement in their children's education and parental warmth have been linked to many positive child outcomes. In addition to these positive associations, contemporary developmental theory stresses the interaction between different parenting variables and the interaction between parenting and broad contextual factors such as family socioeconomic status (SES). Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine main and interaction effects of parent home-based involvement and parental warmth on achievement outcomes. Additionally, we evaluated whether these variables also interacted with SES to predict students' achievement growth. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Kindergarten Cohort of 2010–11 (N = 2352), growth of academic outcomes was modeled from kindergarten to the fourth grade. We then used latent variable interaction (Maslowsky, Jager, & Hemken, 2015) procedures to examine interaction effects of our primary study variables. Few significant effects were noted for children's reading and mathematics scores, but more substantial main (home-based involvement) and interaction (parental warmth and SES) effects emerged for science achievement. At high SES levels, warmth negatively predicted growth in science, whereas at lower SES levels, warmth positively predicted growth. Findings are discussed in relation to importance of parent involvement, differential effects across SES contexts, and curricular emphasis in contemporary schools.     

Parenting and Chinese Adolescent Suicidal Ideation and Suicide Attempts: The Mediating Role of Hopelessness

Various family factors are risk factors for adolescent suicidality (suicidal ideation and suicide attempts). However, little is known about the role of parenting in adolescent suicidality. The present study examined the unique relations between three parenting dimensions (parental warmth, behavioral control, and psychological control) and adolescent suicidality, as well as the mediating role of adolescent hopelessness among these relations. A total of 1529 Chinese adolescents (52 % male; mean age = 14.74 years, SD = 1.48) completed anonymous questionnaires designed to assess three parenting dimensions, hopelessness, suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. After controlling for gender, age, family structure, and socioeconomic status, it was found that parental warmth negatively predicted adolescent suicidality, whereas psychological control positively predicted adolescent suicidality. In addition, parental warmth negatively predicted adolescent hopelessness, whereas psychological control positively predicated adolescent hopelessness, which in turn enhanced adolescent suicidality. Although behavioral control did not predict adolescent suicidality, it did negatively predict adolescent hopelessness, which in turn promoted adolescent suicidality. These findings revealed the differential roles of different parenting dimensions in adolescent suicidality, and the mediation effect of adolescent hopelessness between parenting and adolescent suicidality. Future practices would benefit from incorporating both parenting and hopelessness for optimal intervention effect.     

自我概念在父母情感关爱与儿童发展间的完全中介效应

运用问卷法,对北京612名中小学生及其父母分别进行了儿童孤独退缩行为、自我概念及父母情感关爱行为测试,运用LISEREL软件对数据的分析结果表明:父母情感关爱行为通过儿童自我概念的完全中介作用,对儿童的孤独退缩行为起到明显的抑制作用;在父母情感关爱行为和儿童学业成就之间,儿童的学业自我概念也起到了明显的完全中介效果.从而支持了儿童自我概念在父母情感关爱与儿童发展间的完全中介地位.     

Longitudinal relations among perceived parental warmth,self-esteem and social behaviours from middle childhood to early adolescence in China: Disentangling between- and within-person associations

Although several studies have addressed the relations between perceived parental warmth and social behaviours, few have distinguished their between- and within-person effects or explored their within-person mediating mechanisms. This study examined the transactional relations among perceived parental warmth (i.e. maternal warmth and paternal warmth), children's self-esteem and children's positive/negative social behaviours (i.e. prosocial behaviour and delinquent behaviour) along with the mediating role of self-esteem after disentangling between- and within-person effects. A total of 4315 Chinese elementary children (44.9% girls; M_age = 9.93 years, SD = 0.73) completed relevant measures on four occasions employing 6-month intervals. Results of random-intercept cross-lagged panel models showed that (a) perceived parental warmth reciprocally and positively predicted prosocial behaviour and self-esteem; (b) perceived paternal warmth reciprocally and negatively predicted delinquent behaviour; (c) self-esteem reciprocally predicted prosocial and delinquent behaviour; (d) perceived maternal warmth reciprocally and positively predicted prosocial behaviour through self-esteem; (e) perceived parental warmth reciprocally and negatively predicted delinquent behaviour through self-esteem; and (f) perceived maternal and paternal warmth differed in their relations with prosocial and delinquent behaviours through self-esteem. These findings illuminated the complicated longitudinal within-person interactions among perceived parental warmth, self-esteem, and social behaviours, the specific mediating mechanism of self-esteem, and the differing results associated with perceived maternal and paternal warmth, all of which yield significant implications for assessments and early interventions aimed to promote positive social behaviour.     

Trajectories of teacher-student warmth and conflict at the transition to middle school: Effects on academic engagement and achievement

Using piece-wise longitudinal trajectory analysis, this study investigated trajectories of teacher-reported warmth and conflict in their relationships with students 4 years prior to and 3 years following the transition to middle school in a sample of 550 academically at-risk and ethnically diverse adolescents. At the transition to middle school, teacher reports of warmth showed a significant drop (shift in intercept), above age-related declines. Both warmth and conflict declined across the middle school years. Structural equation modeling (SEM) tested effects of the shifts in intercept and the post-transition slopes on reading and math achievement, teacher-rated engagement, and student-reported school belonging 3 years post-transition, above pre-transition levels of the outcome. For warmth, a drop in intercept predicted lower math scores and engagement, and a more positive slope predicted higher engagement. For conflict, an increase in intercept and a negative slope predicted lower engagement. Implications of findings for reducing normative declines in academic engagement in middle school are discussed.     

Perceived Parenting,Self‐Conscious Emotions,and Forgiveness in College Students

The relations of parental warmth, self‐conscious emotions, and forgiveness were investigated. University students completed self‐report questionnaires online through the university‐sponsored website. The questionnaires contained measures of five constructs: parental warmth, empathy, shame, self‐forgiveness, and interpersonal forgiveness. From the results, the authors concluded that interpersonal forgiveness and self‐forgiveness were predicted by parental warmth, empathy, and shame. Empathy mediated the relation of parental warmth with interpersonal forgiveness and self‐forgiveness. Parental warmth and self‐conscious emotions were important in the prediction of both interpersonal forgiveness and self‐forgiveness.     

儿童对父母关爱的感知能力的发展

为了说明儿童能否感知到父母在情感、生理和行为三个方面的关爱,研究采用情境故事考察了幼儿园中班及小学二、四、六年级169名儿童对父母关爱的感知能力的发展特点。结果表明：随着年龄的增长,儿童对父母关爱的感知能力在不断发展;女孩对父母情感关爱的感知显著高于男孩;独生子女对父母生理关爱的感知显著高于非独生子女;高同伴接纳水平儿童对父母生理关爱的感知显著高于低同伴接纳水平儿童。     

The Stability of Parenting: A Longitudinal Analysis of Inner-City African-American Mothers

We examined the stability of authoritative parenting behaviors in a sample of 124 low-income, inner-city, African-American families. Parental monitoring and warmth were assessed longitudinally across four years. Test-retest correlation coefficients indicated the relative stability of both parental monitoring and warmth over the four-year assessment period was high, particularly for girls. In contrast, analyses of variance did not provide evidence for absolute stability as both parental monitoring and warmth declined across assessments, regardless of gender of child. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that the historical context of monitoring is important to consider as earlier parental monitoring behaviors accounted for unique variance in later parental monitoring behaviors, beyond that accounted for by the most recent assessment. Clinical implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Coalitions and Family Problem Solving with Preadolescents in Referred,At-Risk,and Comparison Families

This study tested the hypothesis that the mother-father coalition, parent-child coalitions, and parental warmth expressed toward the child are associated with family problem solving in families with a preadolescent child referred for treatment of behavior problems (n = 30 ), families with a child at-risk for conduct disorder (n = 68 ), and a sample of comparison families (n = 90 ). Referred and at-risk families displayed less effective problem solving. A regression analysis, which controlled for gender of the child, family structure, family income, marital satisfaction, and severity of child problems, showed that strong parental coalitions were linked to low levels of family problem solving in at-risk and referred families. Parent-child coalitions had little apparent impact while parental warmth was highly correlated with better family problem solving. The results may be interpreted as evidence for a tendency for parents in at-risk and referred families to “scapegoat” a preadolescent during family problem-solving sessions. This may undermine progress on family problem solutions and may complicate family-based prevention and treatment programs that use family problem-solving sessions.     

On the Link between Perceived Parental Rearing Behaviors and Self-conscious Emotions in Adolescents

This study examined relationships between the self-conscious emotions of guilt and shame in both clinical (N?=?104) and non-clinical (N?=?477) (young) adolescents aged 11–18?years, who completed a questionnaire to assess perceived parental rearing behaviors (EMBU-C) and a scenario-based instrument to measure proneness to guilt and shame (SCEMAS). Results indicated that parental rearing dimensions were positively related to self-conscious emotions. Regarding the non-clinical sample, both favourable (emotional warmth) and unfavourable (rejection) paternal and maternal rearing dimensions were significant correlates of guilt- and shame-proneness. The results for the clinical sample were less conclusive: only maternal emotional warmth and rejection were found to be significantly associated with guilt and shame. Interestingly, no associations between any of the paternal rearing dimensions and self-conscious emotions emerged. Taken together, these results are in keeping with the notion that parental rearing factors are involved in the development of both adaptive and maladaptive self-conscious emotions in adolescents.     

Parental emotion regulation and preschoolers’ prosocial behavior: The mediating roles of parental warmth and inductive discipline

The potential mediating roles of parental warmth and inductive discipline on the relations of parental emotion regulation strategies to children’s prosocial behavior were examined in this study. Sixty-four parents of preschoolers (50% girls) completed questionnaires assessing their own regulation practices (i.e., cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression), parenting behaviors (i.e., parental warmth/nurturance, inductive discipline), and children’s prosocial behavior (voluntary behavior intended to benefit another). The authors hypothesized that cognitive reappraisal would be positively and expressive suppression would be negatively related to parenting behaviors and children’s prosocial behavior. They further hypothesized that parental warmth and inductive discipline would mediate the relations between parents’ own regulation strategies and children’s prosocial behavior. Results demonstrated that parental cognitive reappraisal was positively associated with warmth, and expressive suppression was negatively associated with inductive discipline and children’s prosocial behavior. Parental warmth, but not inductive discipline, mediated the relations between cognitive reappraisal and children’s prosocial behavior. The results highlight adults’ own regulatory strategies as predictors of socialization behaviors and the potential processes for socialization of children’s moral emotions and positive social development.     

Religious Resources or Differential Returns? Early Religious Socialization and Declining Attendance in Emerging Adulthood

The transition from adolescence into emerging adulthood is usually accompanied by a decline in religious participation. This article examines why such decline occurs at different rates across major Christian traditions and whether this variation can be explained by early socialization factors. Using data from waves 1 and 3 of the National Study of Youth and Religion (N = 1,879), I examine the effects of parental religiosity, church support, religious education, and youth group involvement on the decline in attendance five years later. Results show that these socialization processes adequately explain why attendance declines at different rates across religious traditions. However, these socialization factors do not have the same effect across traditions and often yield differential returns for attendance outcomes. These findings also suggest that comparisons across religious traditions can resolve the “channeling hypothesis” debate about whether parental influence on an offspring's future religiosity is primarily direct or indirect.