The effects of physique-salient and physique non-salient exercise videos on women's body image, self-presentational concerns, and exercise motivation

This experiment examined the effects of exposure to physique-salient (PS) and physique non-salient (PNS) exercise videos and the moderating influence of perceived physique discrepancies, on body image, self-presentational concerns, and exercise motivation. Eighty inactive women (M age = 26) exercised to a 30 min instructional exercise video. In the PS condition, the video instructor wore revealing attire that emphasized her thin and toned physique. In the PNS condition, she wore attire that concealed her physique. Participants completed pre- and post-exercise measures of body image, social physique anxiety (SPA) and self-presentational efficacy (SPE) and a post-exercise measure of exercise motivation and perceived discrepancies with the instructor's body. No main or moderated effects emerged for video condition. However, greater perceived negative discrepancies were associated with poorer post-exercise body satisfaction and body evaluations, and higher state SPA. There were no effects on SPE or motivation. Results suggest that exercise videos that elicit perceived negative discrepancies can be detrimental to women's body images.     

The relationship of anthropometric measurements with psychological criteria in female athletes

Sports and exercise settings as well as other socio-cultural environments emphasize a thin and physically fit female body. However, there is a clear need for a better understanding of the physical and psychological correlates of social physique anxiety and body image dissatisfaction in female athletes. This study aimed to examine the association of the social physique anxiety, body image satisfaction, and personality with the anthropometric measurements in female college athletes according to their sport type using the Co-Plot technique. The sample included 63 female athletes ranging in age from 18 to 26. Results of the Co-Plot analysis revealed a significant association among social physique anxiety, personality and anthropometric measurements. This means that certain physical measurements may lead to greater social physique anxiety and body image dissatisfaction in female athletes. It was found that females having higher levels of social physique anxiety and thus, lower levels of body image satisfaction may be less emotionally stable and more negatively perfectionist. In conclusion, the results of the present study provided evidence to the claim that both physical self-perception and anthropometric measurements may be closely associated with psychological criteria in female athletes.     

Construct validation of a state version of the Social Physique Anxiety Scale among young women

This study examined the validity of a state version of the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (Hart, Leary & Rejeski, 1989) by conducting tests of concurrent and discriminative validation. Participants were four separate samples of young women (N=221) who exercised ≤ 2 days/week and who participated in various experiments examining body image and self-presentation. Participants' scores on the state SPAS (S-SPAS) were significantly correlated, in expected directions, with scores on both trait and state measures of body image and self-presentation, and with body mass index (BMI). In addition, S-SPAS scores discriminated between women who exercised in a mixed-sex versus a same-sex environment, but trait SPAS scores did not. Together, these results provide evidence of construct validity of a state version of the SPAS and demonstrate that social physique anxiety can be conceptualized and measured as a situational variable. The S-SPAS, rather than the trait SPAS, should be employed in experiments designed to detect differences in state social physique anxiety.     

Body image and exercise: A study of relationships and comparisons between physically active men and women

A group of physically active women (n=112) and men (n=88) of a broad range of ages were compared on a number of variables related to body image, weight and diet concerns, and degree of exercise participation. Interrelationships between these measures were also examined. Results indicated that men and women were equally dissatisfied with their current weight. Although most women wanted to lose weight, the men were evenly divided between those who wanted to lose and those who wanted to gain. Women, however, were more dissatisfied with their bodies and placed greater importance on their appearance as an influence on their feelings of well-being. Although there were no sex differences in degree of physical activity, women were more likely than men to exercise to try and lose weight. Of interest was the finding that age was not related to body focus or body dissatisfaction for either sex. For women and older men, the degree to which they exercised was not associated with any of the body image variables. A very different pattern of relationships was found for young men. Greater body satisfaction was associated with increases in exercise participation and with increased body focus, a variable that was also associated with increased levels of exercise. The profile of results is considered in the context of social influences such as health promotion and sex roles — factors that have likely affected current attitudes to physical appearance and physical attractiveness among both sexes.     

The effects of exercise on body satisfaction and affect

This research used ecological momentary assessment to examine the effects of exercise on state body dissatisfaction and affect in 33 undergraduate females with high trait body dissatisfaction and 28 with low trait body dissatisfaction who exercised at least three times weekly. Trait body dissatisfaction was investigated as a moderator of the effects of exercise as well as different motivations for exercise. Results indicated all participants experienced lower state body dissatisfaction and negative affect and greater positive affect post-exercise. Trait body dissatisfaction moderated the association between motivations and exercise effects. Appearance and weight motivations were related to higher state body dissatisfaction for all individuals. Fitness and health motivations were related to higher state body dissatisfaction for high trait body dissatisfied individuals and lower state body dissatisfaction for low trait body dissatisfied individuals. Thus, although exercise has positive effects on body dissatisfaction and affect for high frequency exercisers, their exercise motivations impact these effects.     

Marked for life? A prospective study of tattoos on appearance anxiety and dissatisfaction, perceptions of uniqueness, and self-esteem

Previous studies on psychosocial aspects of tattooing have not examined prospective changes in self- and body-related attitudes as a result of obtaining a tattoo. In the present study, 82 British residents obtaining their first tattoo completed measures of state appearance anxiety and dissatisfaction prior to, and immediately after, obtaining a tattoo. They also completed measures of trait body appreciation, distinctive appearance investment, self-ascribed uniqueness, social physique anxiety, and self-esteem before obtaining a tattoo and three weeks later. Results showed that both women and men had significantly lower appearance anxiety and dissatisfaction immediately after obtaining their tattoo, and significantly higher body appreciation, distinctive appearance investment, self-ascribed uniqueness, and self-esteem after three weeks. Women reported greater social physique anxiety after three weeks, whereas men reported lower anxiety. These results are discussed in relation to the positive impacts of obtaining body art and the mainstreaming of tattooing in Western societies.     

Physique Contrast Effect: Adverse Impact of Idealized Body Images for Women

Adherence to an attractiveness ideal was considered as a possible mediator of a physique contrast effect among Caucasian women. Following exposure to photographs of models typifying idealized thin physiques, women displayed decreased self-esteem and increased self-consciousness, social physique anxiety, and body dissatisfaction. Although women with low adherence to an attractiveness ideal seemed to be advantaged by having greater self-esteem, less self-consciousness, and lower physique anxiety or dissatisfaction than their high adherence counterparts, these women did not display any unique resistance to the contrast effect. High affirmation of an attractiveness ideal was associated with exceptionally high potential for disordered eating. Eating disorder potential did not show influence of the contrast effect, but long-term implications were considered.     

The hijab as a protective factor for body image and disordered eating: a replication in French Muslim women

We examined differences in body image and disordered eating between Muslim women who do and do not wear the hijab in France, a nation marked by religious-based sartorial censorship. In an online survey, 450 French Muslim women completed measures of hijab use, weight discrepancy, disordered eating, body image-related constructs, religiosity, perceived support from Allah, and perceived discrimination. Controlling for religiosity and support from Allah, women who wore the hijab reported significantly lower weight discrepancy, body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, social physique anxiety, internalisation of the thin and muscular ideals, and pressure to attain ideals from peers and the media, though they also reported significantly higher perceived discrimination than those who did not wear the hijab. Further analyses showed that use of the hijab was significantly associated with weight discrepancy and disordered eating. Our results suggest that use of the hijab may offer a protective element for French Muslim women.     

Objectification in Fitness Centers: Self-Objectification, Body Dissatisfaction, and Disordered Eating in Aerobic Instructors and Aerobic Participants

This study was designed to investigate self-objectification, its theoretical consequences, and its relationship to reasons for exercise within a fitness center environment. Sixty female aerobic instructors and 97 female aerobic participants, who ranged in age from 18 to 45 years, completed questionnaire measures of self-objectification, reasons for exercise, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating. Increased self-objectification (and self-surveillance) was related to disordered eating symptomatology, body dissatisfaction, and appearance-related reasons for exercise. Aerobic instructors scored significantly lower on self-objectification, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating than did aerobic participants, and they exercised more for enjoyment and less for appearance-related reasons. For aerobic participants, location of exercise (inside or outside the fitness center) moderated the relationship between frequency of exercise and self-objectification, such that exercising within fitness centers was associated with relatively higher self-objectification. Higher levels of self-objectification were also related to wearing tighter exercise clothing. These results support the general model of Objectification Theory, and provide practical implications for women who exercise within objectifying environments.     

Body self-discrepancies and women's social physique anxiety: the moderating role of the feared body

We explored ideal, ought, and feared body image self-discrepancies as predictors of social physique anxiety within Carver, Lawrence, and Scheier's and Woodman and Hemmings' interaction frameworks. One hundred women completed actual, ideal, ought, and feared body self-discrepancy visual analogue scales, the Social Physique Anxiety Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory-II. Moderated hierarchical regression analyses indicated that the relationship between ought body fat discrepancies and social physique anxiety was moderated by proximity to the feared fat self. Specifically, the positive relationship between ought fat discrepancies and social physique anxiety was stronger when women were far from their feared body self. The results highlight the importance of considering the feared self in order to more fully understand the relationship between body image and social physique anxiety.     

Stress and Health in Spanish Women1

This study examines the relationship between stress and health in a sample of 1,566 women aged between 18 and 65 years. Multiple regression analyses were conducted using the scaled version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ‐28) scales as the dependent variables, and 21 personal and social variables as predictors. The women with more severe depression, anxiety, and somatic and social dysfunction symptoms were those who had a more emotional coping style and greater work role dissatisfaction. Moreover, depression, anxiety, and social dysfunction symptoms were predicted by low self‐esteem, while depression, anxiety, and somatic symptoms were predicted by chronic stress. The women with more symptoms of anxiety and depression were those who have experienced more life events and have low perceived social support. Women with Type‐A behavior patterns were found to suffer more anxiety and somatic symptoms. Women who exercise more hours per week had fewer somatic symptoms, and those with a more rational coping style suffered less social dysfunction.     

Appearance-based exercise motivation moderates the relationship between exercise frequency and positive body image

Individuals with a positive body image appreciate their bodies, hold an internal perspective of their bodies, and are satisfied with the functionality of their bodies. Research shows that positive body image is more complex than the absence of body dissatisfaction. Although exercise reduces women's body dissatisfaction, very little research has explored how, or even whether, exercise is associated with positive body image. Therefore, we examined whether exercise frequency was positively related to three aspects of positive body image (body appreciation, internal body orientation, and functional body satisfaction) among 321 college women. Appearance-based exercise motivation (the extent exercise is pursued to influence weight or shape) was hypothesized to moderate these associations. Hierarchical moderated regression analyses showed that exercise frequency was related to higher positive body image, but high levels of appearance-based exercise motivation weakened these relationships. Thus, messages promoting exercise need to de-emphasize weight loss and appearance for positive body image.     

Gender and race differences in young adults’ body dissatisfaction

Differences by gender and race (White or Black) in two aspects of college students’ body dissatisfaction—dissatisfaction with specific body parts and physique anxiety—were examined. Four hundred and ninety-one students completed surveys assessing both aspects of body dissatisfaction and eight risk factors for body dissatisfaction from biological, psychological, and sociocultural domains. Mean levels of dissatisfaction with body parts varied by gender, race, and a Gender × Race interaction. Mean levels of physique anxiety varied by gender and race. Both dissatisfaction with body parts and physique anxiety were correlated with risk factors from each domain, and factors from each domain accounted for unique variance in each aspect of body dissatisfaction. Because the prediction of each aspect of body dissatisfaction did not vary by gender, race, or a Gender × Race interaction, findings validate a general multidimensional risk model of body dissatisfaction for young adults.     

Emphasizing appearance versus health outcomes in exercise: The influence of the instructor and participants’ reasons for exercise

The objectifying nature of exercise environments may prevent women from reaping psychological benefits of exercise. The present experiment manipulated self-objectification through an exercise class taught by an instructor who emphasized exercise as either a means of acquiring appearance or health outcomes. The purpose of this study was to test for interactions between the class emphasis and participants’ reasons for exercise (i.e., appearance, health) predicting participants’ state self-objectification, state social physique anxiety, exercise class enjoyment, and future intentions of returning to a similar exercise class. Results, obtained via pre- and post-exercise questionnaires, revealed a significant interaction between class emphasis and health reasons for exercise predicting state self-objectification. Participants with lower health reasons for exercise reported greater state self-objectification in the appearance-focused class compared to those with higher health reasons for exercise. Adopting stronger health reasons for exercise may buffer exercise participants from the more objectifying aspects of the group exercise environment.     

The influence of social anxiety on the body checking behaviors of female college students

Social anxiety and eating pathology frequently co-occur. However, there is limited research examining the relationship between anxiety and body checking, aside from one study in which social physique anxiety partially mediated the relationship between body checking cognitions and body checking behavior (Haase, Mountford, & Waller, 2007). In an independent sample of 567 college women, we tested the fit of Haase and colleagues’ foundational model but did not find evidence of mediation. Thus we tested the fit of an expanded path model that included eating pathology and clinical impairment. In the best-fitting path model (CFI = .991; RMSEA = .083) eating pathology and social physique anxiety positively predicted body checking, and body checking positively predicted clinical impairment. Therefore, women who endorse social physique anxiety may be more likely to engage in body checking behaviors and experience impaired psychosocial functioning.     

Drive for muscularity, body comparison, and social physique anxiety in men and women

The presented study tested a model of the relationship between the drive for muscularity (DM), three aspects of body comparison (general, weight-, and muscle-related), and social physique anxiety in college men and women. The findings demonstrated that those with higher levels of DM engaged in more frequent body-related comparisons in all three areas. Greater frequency of both Weight- and Muscle-Related Body Comparison was then predictive of higher levels of social physique anxiety. Constraints placed on the path coefficients showed that the association between DM and Muscle-Related Comparisons was significantly stronger than the association between DM and Weight-Related Comparisons. The model was similar for both genders. The results from the structural models were discussed in terms of Cash's (2002) cognitive-behavioral model of body image and the dual pathway model of boys' and men's body image (Jones & Crawford, 2005).     

Media images of the "ideal" female body: can acute exercise moderate their psychological impact?

Exposure to the media's “ideal” physique increases mood and body image disturbance, especially for at-risk women. Because exercise decreases mood and body image disturbance, we examined the ability of acute aerobic exercise to moderate the negative psychological impact of exposure to media pictures of the “ideal” female body. Women reporting high drive for thinness and media internalization viewed pictures of either nonphysique or “ideal” physique pictures after engaging in 30 min of either aerobic exercise or quiet rest. Compared to the nonphysique pictures, viewing the physique pictures resulted in increased depression and body dissatisfaction. Acute aerobic exercise, however, did not moderate the negative mood states elicited by the media images. Implications of our results and future directions for research are discussed.     

Women's anxiety about social and exercise settings

This study involved a comparison of social physique anxiety, assessed through the application of a modified version of the Social Physique Anxiety Scale, with 28 women who were new members exercising at all-female facilities compared to 43 new female members exercising at coeducational facilities. Analyses indicated there were no significant differences in means between the groups. The scores of women attending all-female facilities were significantly more influenced by the sex of members when choosing a facility.     

Acute psychological benefits of aerobic exercise: a field study into the effects of exercise characteristics

Eighty volunteers were tested in their natural exercise environment consisting of a fitness centre they regularly attended. Half of the sample exercised on a stationary bicycle, the other half on a treadmill. All participants filled in the Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory before and after their 20 min of exercise that was performed at self-selected workload. The results revealed that exercise intensity and the other parallel measures like heart rate, perceived exercise intensity and estimates of burned calories were higher in participants who ran in contrast to those who cycled. There were no differences in self-reports of enjoyment of the exercise sessions and in the psychological improvements from pre- to post-exercise between the groups. It is concluded that significant psychological improvements occur even after a 20-min bout of exercise and these changes are independent of the workload or exercise intensity.     

Moderators of the association between exercise identity and obligatory exercise among participants of an athletic event

Previous research has connected exercise identity with obligatory exercise, yet to date no empirical studies have identified moderator variables of this association. The current study included participants of an athletic event (full marathon, n = 582; half marathon, n = 1,106; shorter distance, n = 733) who completed questionnaires about exercise behaviors, obligatory exercise, and internalization of both the thin-ideal and athletic-ideal body shapes. General linear model analyses were conducted to examine the exercise identity–obligatory exercise relationship; moderator variables included gender, internalization of the thin-ideal body shape, and internalization of the athletic-ideal body shape. After controlling for the effects of body mass index, age, and distance group, the three-way interaction of exercise identity, gender, and internalization of the athletic-ideal body shape predicted obligatory exercise. Findings suggest that women who report high identification with exercise and high value on having an athletic physique may be vulnerable to obligatory exercise.