Communities of Denial: The Co-Construction of Gendered Adolescent Violence

Neutralization theorists argue that techniques of neutralization bridge the gap between deviant behaviors and mainstream norms. While acknowledging this fundamental outcome, this article examines the role of broader communities in upholding neutralizations, specifically those that foster violence. Based on in-depth interviews with 25 adolescents and their mothers (N = 50), I find that neutralizations are developed around rigid gender ideologies, are differentially employed across genders, and reify gender differences in violent behavior. Techniques of neutralization are co-constructed within communities and built on mainstream norms, values, and expectations. This study demonstrates how neutralizations can perpetuate and escalate violence among adolescents.     

Social Learning,Self-Control,Gender, and Variety of Violent Delinquency

This study tested the role of social learning and self-control theories in the variety of violent delinquent behaviors engaged in by male and female adolescents (N = 833). Results of Tobit analyses indicated that neither theory was able to account for the gender gap. Low self-control was significantly associated with an increase in the variety of violent delinquency among females. Among male respondents, those who were more susceptible to peer pressure engaged in fewer types of violent delinquency. We conclude that theories must actively recognize the role of gender to better account for the differences in violent delinquent behavior.     

Violent offenses associated with co‐occurring substance use and mental health problems: Evidence from CJDATS

The present study examines the relationship between substance use, mental health problems, and violence in a sample of offenders released from prison and referred to substance abuse treatment programs. Data from 34 sites (n = 1,349) in a federally funded cooperative, the Criminal Justice Drug Abuse Treatment Studies (CJDATS), were analyzed. Among parolees referred to substance abuse treatment, self‐reports for the six‐month period before the arrest resulting in their incarceration revealed frequent problems with both substance use and mental health. For most offenders with substance use problems, the quantity of alcohol consumed and the frequency of drug use were associated with a greater probability of self‐reported violence. Mental health problems were not indicative of increases in violent behavior, with the exception of antisocial personality problems, which were associated with violence. The paper emphasizes the importance of providing substance abuse treatment in relation to violent behavior among offenders with mental health problems being discharged to the community. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Treating Perpetrators of Domestic Violence: Gender Differences in the Applicability of the Theory of Planned Behavior

Female perpetrated intimate partner violence has commonly been treated, both legally and clinically, similarly to male perpetrated violence. However, there is little empirical research of the gender differences in treatment needs or the applicability of classic models of batterer intervention for women. This study examines the applicability of one theory that has commonly been used to guide treatment of male perpetrators, the theory of planned behavior. R. M. Tolman, J. L. Edleson, and M. Fendrich (1996) found the components of this theory to be moderately predictive of abusive behavior among males. In a survey of 114 male and female participants in batterer intervention counseling in Los Angeles County, the current study confirmed that the model predicted male behaviors but found the model did not apply to female violent behavior.     

Relationships Between Treatment Components, Client-Level Factors, and Positive Treatment Outcomes

How different amounts and components of treatment affect substance abuse treatment outcomes is fundamentally important to evaluating current treatment practices and recommending improvements. Through a secondary analysis of data from the National Treatment Improvement Evaluation Study (NTIES), the present study examined the relationships between treatment components, client-level factors, and positive treatment outcomes. Several components were shown tohave significant effects on the odds of a positive outcome, over and above the effects of client background characteristics. Depending on treatment modality, these included length of stay; whether or not clients reported seeing their treatment plan hours per month in group and individual counseling; utilization ofeducational, vocational, and other ancillary services; use of antianxiety and drug and alcohol medications; and client matching. Several interactions between client-level factors and treatment components were also observed. Studylimitations are discussed, followed by implications for policy and practiceand suggestions for further research.     

Violent behavior in adolescents and young adults: A person and environment model

We explore a model that examines how personal and environmental variables explain violent behavior by adolescents. Repeated interviews with youths from 1984–1992 from 10 cities across the United States provided the data. These interviews first occurred with 2,787 youths when they were adolescents (1984–85 and 1986–87) and the interviews were repeated on a subsample of 602 youths when they were young adults (1989–90 and 1991–92). Longitudinal multivariate analyses showed that almost a third of the variance in adolescent violent behaviors was predicted by a combination of personal variables (gender, substance misuse) and environmental variables (history of child abuse, stressful events, traumatic events, and city rates of unemployment). Further, almost a third of the variance in change in violent behaviors from year to year was predicted by prior violent behavior and a combination of personal variables (gender, suicidality, and substance misuse) and environmental variables (stressful events).     

Batterer Program Directors' Views on Substance Abuse and Domestic Violence

This article reports on a national survey of batterer intervention program (BIP) directors (N?=?150). The beliefs of these directors on the relationship of substance abuse and domestic violence is reported and discussed. BIP director's opinions are important because they make programmatic and treatment decisions. Most BIP directors believe that for many of their clients, both men and women, perpetrator and victim, violence and substance abuse is related. Treatment and methodological considerations are discussed.     

The Good Behavior Game: a best practice candidate as a universal behavioral vaccine

A behavioral vaccine provides an inoculation against morbidity or mortality, impacting physical, mental, or behavior disorders. An historical example of a behavioral vaccine is antiseptic hand washing to reduce childbed fever. In current society, issues with high levels of morbidity, such as substance abuse, delinquency, youth violence, and other behavioral disorders (multiproblems), cry out for a low-cost, widespread strategy as simple as antiseptic hand washing. Congruent research findings from longitudinal studies, twin studies, and other investigations suggest that a possibility might exist for a behavioral vaccine for multiproblem behavior. A simple behavioral strategy called the Good Behavior Game (GBG), which reinforces inhibition in a group context of elementary school, has substantial previous research to consider its use as a behavioral vaccine. The GBG is not a curriculum but rather a simple behavioral procedure from applied behavior analysis. Approximately 20 independent replications of the GBG across different grade levels, different types of students, different settings, and some with long-term follow-up show strong, consistent impact on impulsive, disruptive behaviors of children and teens as well as reductions in substance use or serious antisocial behaviors. The GBG, named as a best practice for the prevention of substance abuse or violent behavior by a number of federal agencies, is unique because it is the only practice implemented by individual teachers that is documented to have long-term effects. Presently, the GBG is only used in a small number of settings. However, near universal use of the GBG, in major political jurisdictions during the elementary years, could substantially reduce the incidence of substance use, antisocial behavior, and other adverse developmental or social consequences at a very modest cost, with very positive cost-effectiveness ratios.     

Adolescent victimization and associated suicidal and violent behaviors

This study examined the relationship between victimization and both suicidal and violent behaviors among 1,569 public high school students in New York State (excluding New York City). They had participated in the 1997 Youth Risk Behavior Survey and, based on their responses, were divided into four groups: no suicidal or violent behavior, suicidal behavior only, violent behavior only, and both suicidal and violent behaviors. Males reported significantly more victimization, less suicidal behavior, and more violent behavior compared with females. Logistic regression analyses indicated that all categories of suicidal/violent behaviors were more frequent among those who had been victimized compared with the nonvictimized, for both males and females. In addition, victimized males were over two times more likely than victimized females to report violent behavior only. Gender differences were not significant for victimized students in two groups, suicidal behavior only and both suicidal and violent behaviors, although the results were in the hypothesized direction for suicidal behavior (e.g., females were more prone to suicidal behavior only). It was concluded that identifying and treating the victims of violence should be an integral component of suicide prevention programs and interventions aimed at reducing interpersonal violence in schools.     

Protective Factors Associated with Preadolescent Violence: Preliminary Work on a Cultural Model

This study explores the influences of communal values, empathy, violence avoidance self-efficacy beliefs, and classmates' fighting on violent behaviors among urban African American preadolescent boys and girls. As part of a larger intervention study, 644 low-income 5th grade students from 12 schools completed a baseline assessment that included the target constructs. Boys reported more violent behaviors, and lower levels of empathy and violence avoidance self-efficacy beliefs than girls. Path analyses revealed that, after controlling for the positive contributions of classmates' fighting, violence avoidance self-efficacy beliefs were a negative predictor of violent behavior. Communal values had a direct negative relationship with violence for boys, but not girls. Both communal values and empathy were associated with less violent behavior through positive relationships with violence avoidance self-efficacy beliefs. For girls, classmate fighting had an indirect positive association with violent behavior through its negative relationship with violence avoidance self-efficacy beliefs. Findings are discussed in terms of implications of basic and applied research on violence among African American youth.     

A School-Based,Primary Violence Prevention Program

Summary

This article presents findings from an evaluative study of a multidisciplinary violence prevention project jointly administered by a family practice clinic and junior high school in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The project team hypothesized that an intervention established on a public health model and aimed at enhancing adolescent self-esteem through cognitive and behavioral strategies would reduce the tendency to engage in violence of participating students. The project united health care personnel, social workers and legal profession-als in an effort to teach students specific cognitive tools for the reduction and avoidance of violent encounters. The experimental results do not reveal Project effectiveness in boosting self-esteem indicators among students, although the Project docs seem to have contributed to the control of students' behavioral aggression. Although a clear relationship between self-esteem and violent behavior is not demonstrated by the experimental results, the project study suggests that school-based, anti-violence programs based on a public health model can have a positive effect in the reduction of physical and verbal aggression among adolescents.     

The Relationship Between Cumulative Risk and Promotive Factors and Violent Behavior Among Urban Adolescents

Resiliency theory posits that some youth exposed to risk factors do not develop negative behaviors due to the influence of promotive factors. This study examines the effects of cumulative risk and promotive factors on adolescent violent behavior and tests two models of resilience—the compensatory model and the protective model—in a sample of adolescent patients (14–18 years old; n = 726) presenting to an urban emergency department who report violent behavior. Cumulative measures of risk and promotive factors consist of individual characteristics and peer, family, and community influences. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to test the two models of resilience (using cumulative measures of risk and promotive factors) for violent behavior within a sample of youth reporting violent behavior. Higher cumulative risk was associated with higher levels of violent behavior. Higher levels of promotive factors were associated with lower levels of violent behavior and moderated the association between risk and violent behaviors. Our results support the risk-protective model of resiliency and suggest that promotive factors can help reduce the burden of cumulative risk for youth violence.     

Substance use/abuse as a predictor to illegal and violent behavior: A review of the relevant literature

The preponderance of the research evidence supports the conclusion that abuse of certain types of illicit drugs, separately from the abuse of alcohol, predisposes to subsequent violent behavior. The relationship of cocaine/crack to violent crime has been established more clearly for users of crack in inner city areas than it has for those who are users of other forms of cocaine in the general population.In regard to any race/ethnic or socioeconomic factors in the relationships between substance use/abuse and violent behavior, most clearly established is that a higher proportion of young Black males, compared to other race/ethnic groups, are actively involved in dealing cocaine/crack in some inner city poverty areas.As for gender differences, the research evidence indicates that alcohol abuse as a predictor to and a precipitant of violent behavior, is more clearly established for males than for females. Drug abuse, as distinct from alcohol abuse, has been found to predict subsequent violent behavior, for females as well as for males. “Co-morbidity,” the combination of substance use with and psychopathology, appears more likely to predict for females to later violent behavior. Psychopathology and mental health problems are less likely to predict occurrence of either violent or criminal behavior in the future than are either alcohol abuse or drug abuse.     

Substance use/abuse as a predictor to illegal and violent behavior: A review of the relevant literature

The preponderance of the research evidence supports the conclusion that abuse of certain types of illicit drugs, separately from the abuse of alcohol, predisposes to subsequent violent behavior. The relationship of cocaine/crack to violent crime has been established more clearly for users of crack in inner city areas than it has for those who are users of other forms of cocaine in the general population.In regard to any race/ethnic or socioeconomic factors in the relationships between substance use/abuse and violent behavior, most clearly established is that a higher proportion of young Black males, compared to other race/ethnic groups, are actively involved in dealing cocaine/crack in some inner city poverty areas.As for gender differences, the research evidence indicates that alcohol abuse as a predictor to and a precipitant of violent behavior, is more clearly established for males than for females. Drug abuse, as distinct from alcohol abuse, has been found to predict subsequent violent behavior, for females as well as for males. “Co-morbidity,” the combination of substance use with and psychopathology, appears more likely to predict for females to later violent behavior. Psychopathology and mental health problems are less likely to predict occurrence of either violent or criminal behavior in the future than are either alcohol abuse or drug abuse.     

Aggression and psychopathology in adolescents with a preference for violent electronic games

Associations between a preference for violent electronic games and adolescents’ self‐perceptions of problem behaviors and emotions were examined. It was predicted that a preference for violent games would be associated with negative externalizing characteristics, in particular aggressive emotions and behaviors, on the Youth Self‐Report (YSR), a standardized self‐report measure of adolescent problem behaviors. Thirty‐two 11‐ through 15‐year‐olds (17 girls) listed and categorized favorite electronic games into one of six predetermined categories and completed the YSR. MANOVA revealed significant relationships between a preference for violent games and the Thought Problems subscale (P < .01) and YSR Total Score (P < .05), with trends noted for the Internalizing (P < .06) and Anxious‐Depressed (P < .08) subscales. Expected relationships with externalizing behaviors, including aggression, were not found. However, across all YSR subscales, children with higher preference for violent games had more clinically significant elevations than those with low preference for violent games. On the Total Problems subscale, of the eight children receiving scores in the clinically significant range, six were in the High preference group (three boys and three girls). The failure to find the expected relationships between a preference for violent games and aggressive, externalizing behaviors is puzzling. It is possible that individuals with a preference for violent games may have high exposure to all forms of media violence. Their perceptions of their own behavior, in comparison, may not seem sufficiently aggressive to justify endorsement of problems in this area. Or, playing violent electronic games may promote a disconnection between the emotions normally associated with violence and violent acts. These explanations are consistent with a desensitization model where exposure to media violence decreases sensitivity to aggression. Aggr. Behav. 28:134–144, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Personality,Parental, and Media Influences on Aggressive Personality and Violent Crime in Young Adults

Debate remains regarding the interaction between predictor variables for aggression, including family environment, media violence, and personality. The current study examined the contributions of gender and personality, exposure to physical abuse and violence in the family, and exposure to media violence in both television and in video games on violent criminal activity. Data from young adults (n = 355) indicated that personality characteristics and direct physical abuse significantly predicted violent crime. Exposure to television and video game violence were not significant predictors of violent crime. These results elucidate the complex interplay between multiple factors related to the etiology of violent crime. These results also call into question the belief that media violence is involved in the etiology of violent crime.     

Life Satisfaction and Violent Behaviors among Middle School Students

We explored relationships between violent behaviors and perceived life satisfaction among 2,138 middle school students in a southern state using the CDC Middle School Youth Risk Behavior Survey (MSYRBS) and the Brief Multidimensional Student Life Satisfaction Scale (BMSLSS). Logistic regression analyses and multivariate models constructed separately revealed significant race by gender results. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for the variables of interest. Having ever carried a gun, ever carried a knife/club, physical fighting and physical fighting with need for medical treatment were associated (p ≤ .05) with reduced life satisfaction for specific race/gender groups, while controlling for SES and grade. Results suggest implications for school-community based violence prevention programs. Future research should consider measures of life satisfaction as a component of comprehensive assessments of middle school student violence and aggressive behaviors in fieldwork, intervention research and program evaluation.     

Testosterone,aggressiveness, and antisocial personality

Testosterone levels were examined in prisoners convicted of violent crimes (n = 13), in men previously convicted of violent crimes but currently not in prison (n = 15), in nonviolent alcoholics (n = 15), and in randomly selected control males (n = 16). Morning, afternoon, and evening testosterone levels were assessed after a minimum alcohol abstinence period of 24 hr. Violent and nonviolent men did not differ in plasma total testosterone level on any sampling occasion. In violent men, however, testosterone levels were significantly correlated with hostility, as measured by the Derogatis Symptom Check List. Most violent men were diagnosed with Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASP) [DSM‐III‐R; 301.70], and the unweighted ASP symptom count also correlated significantly with testosterone levels in these subjects. We suggest that individuals whose life histories involve numerous antisocial behaviors tend to have high testosterone levels even when interpersonal violence is excluded. This, however, does not eliminate the possibility that males who are characterized by high hostility may also have elevated testosterone levels. Violent predisposition and antisocial conduct beginning in early adolescence predict adult aggressive behaviors, which are augmented by power‐related alcohol expectancies and alcohol abuse. Aggr. Behav. 25:113–123, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Effects of playing violent videogames on Chinese adolescents' pro-violence attitudes, attitudes toward others, and aggressive behavior.

This study examines the effects of exposure to online videogame violence on Chinese adolescents' attitudes toward violence, empathy, and aggressive behavior. Results of bivariate analyses show that playing violent videogames on the Internet was associated with greater tolerance of violence, a lower emphatic attitude, and more aggressive behavior. Results of hierarchical regression analyses showed sustained relationships between exposure and pro-violent attitudes and empathy when exposure was examined simultaneously with gender, computer use, and Internet use. However, the linkage between exposure and aggression became non-significant, suggesting that the effects of playing violent videogames were greater for attitudinal outcomes than on overt behavior. Gender differences in playing videogames and in effects were also found.     

Spontaneous and Reflexive Cognitions Related to Spousal Abuse: The Role of Experiences of Violence

The aim of this study was to investigate the recognition of violent behaviors, assessment of their severity, and reaction time in recognizing violent behaviors among individuals (91 men, 122 women) who have been exposed to spousal abuse, either as victim or aggressor, and those who have not reported such experiences. Results indicate a relation between the rapidity with which participants recognized a behavior, number of behaviors recognized, and assessment of the severity of such behaviors. Moreover, participants recognized physical violence more readily than psychological violence, and rated physical violence more severely. Finally, the experience of violence in a couple, as perpetrator or as victim, was linked to reaction time for each type of violence.