二胎家庭的父母养育

随着我国全面二胎政策的实施,关于二胎家庭父母养育的问题越来越受到社会的广泛关注。但是,在我国这方面的研究极度稀缺。本文就二胎家庭父母养育的表现形式、影响因素及作用机制进行论述。二胎家庭父母养育的表现形式包括父母差别对待、协调同胞关系等。二胎家庭父母养育的影响因素包括父母养育第一胎的经验、婚姻质量、协同养育、儿童特点等。二胎父母养育的作用机制包括父母差别对待造成的儿童心理发展问题,以及父母在协调同胞关系中的作用。此外,本文结合已有文献,提出了一个"二胎家庭父母养育的过程机制"模型,揭示在二胎家庭情境下,各种因素是如何影响父母的养育模式,又通过哪些作用机制对家中的两个孩子产生影响。最后,强调未来我国的研究者应该重视本土化,关注社会变迁中二胎父母养育的特点。     

The More the Merrier? Sibling Composition and Early Manifestations of Theory of Mind in Toddlers

Sibling relationships are argued to offer a rich social context for the development of young children’s theory of mind (ToM). There is evidence that the presence of siblings, particularly older siblings, may promote preschoolers’ ToM, but it has not been investigated among toddlers. This study evaluated differences in early manifestations of ToM between toddlers in different sibling compositions: 1) without a sibling, 2) with younger siblings only, and 3) with older siblings only. The sample included 227 toddlers who completed 2 tasks assessing their understanding of discrepant desires and visual perspectives. Results indicated that only children and those who had older siblings did not differ from each other on either task. However, on both tasks, toddlers with younger siblings performed significantly more poorly compared with those with older siblings. Moreover, children with younger siblings demonstrated poorer visual-perspective understanding compared with only children. It may be critical to take siblings’ birth order into account when investigating their respective effects on each other’s ToM, especially in toddlerhood.     

Older siblings influence younger siblings' motor development

Evidence exists for two competing theories about the effects of having an older sibling on development. Previous research has found that having an older sibling has both advantages and disadvantages for younger siblings' development. This study examined whether and how older siblings influenced the onset of their own younger siblings' motor milestones, a heretofore unstudied developmental domain in the sibling literature. Parents of 51 sibling pairs reported their children's crawling and walking onset dates. In keeping with imitation theories, in families where younger siblings crawled or walked earlier than their own older sibling, they did so significantly earlier. Moreover, in keeping with limited parental resource theories, in families where older siblings crawled or walked earlier than their own younger sibling, they did so significantly earlier. Older siblings did influence younger siblings' motor development, but how they did so may have depended on unique family characteristics. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationship Quality of Aggressive Children and Their Siblings: A Multiinformant, Multimeasure Investigation

Sibling influence on the learning and enactment of aggressive behavior has been consistently demonstrated in studies of sibling relationships. Available evidence suggests that, compared with nonaggressive children's sibling interactions, the sibling interactions of aggressive children are marked by more frequent, intense, and prolonged aggressive behaviors. Although research on normative and aggressive children's sibling interactions has increased recently, a number of limitations in this literature were addressed in this study by: (1) including both an aggressive and nonaggressive comparison group, (2) examining both positive and negative features of sibling relationships, (3) employing a multimethod/multiinformant approach to data collection, and (4) utilizing an improved self-report method. In support of our hypotheses and consistent with previous research, results showed that aggressive children's sibling relationships were marked by higher levels of observed conflict and lower levels of self-reported positive features. When gender was examined, results showed that older brother/younger sister dyads were characterized by higher levels of negative features and lower levels of positive features.     

The Development of Family Loyalty and Relational Ethics in Children

Despite little research investigating how family loyalty and relational ethics develop in children, theorists suggest that children's early family loyalty experiences play a significant role in their future relationships. Twenty-four children, ages 5–10 years, were interviewed to examine developmental trends in children's conceptualizations of family and family loyalty and their reasoning through parent-child ethical dilemmas. Results indicate (a) younger children possess a simpler, more concrete schema for family and family loyalty than do older children and (b) younger children are less able than older children to adopt their parents' perspectives in reasoning through ethical dilemmas.A psychotherapist with T. W. Ponessa & Associates     

Memories of Mickey Mouse: Young children recount their trip to disneyworld

What young children remember and how long they retain such information are crucial issues for the study of young children's memory. In this research, these issues were examined by asking children who visited Disneyworld at 37 or 49 months of age to recall their experience. Half of the children were interviewed 6 months after their trip, and the remaining children were interviewed after 18 months. Surprisingly, there were no effects for age or retention interval on the amount children recalled; all children recounted a great deal of accurate information about their Disneyworld experience. However, older children's reports were more detailed than younger children's, and older children tended to recall more information spontaneously than did younger children. Finally, there is some suggestion that children who talked about their Disneyworld experience more frequently with their families subsequently recounted more information during the memory interview. Implications for these findings are discussed.     

Developmental changes in information central to artifact representation: evidence from 'functional fluency' tasks

Research suggests that while information about design is a central feature of older children's artifact representations it may be less important in the artifact representations of younger children. Three experiments explore the pattern of responses that 5- and 7-year-old children generate when asked to produce multiple uses for familiar (Experiments 1, 2) and novel (Experiment 3) named objects. Results showed that while older children tended to produce responses based on the known design function of the object, younger children's responses were more flexible, though still constrained by the mechanical structure of the object. Only when ignorant of a novel object's design function did older children produce more varied functions than did younger children. These results suggest that representations supporting object function undergo change across this period of development, with information about design assuming more importance later than it does earlier.     

同胞关系及其与儿童青少年社会性发展的关系

同胞关系是指兄弟姐妹之间分享与彼此有关的知识、观点、态度、信念和感受的所有互动,具有平等互惠性和补充性。同胞关系质量分为同胞温暖与冲突、界限黏结与解离、积极与消极同胞关系。亲缘选择和家庭系统理论从进化和环境视角解释同胞关系。同胞关系对于儿童青少年内外化问题行为和人际关系等具有重要影响。未来应关注特殊儿童青少年同胞关系的特点,深入探讨同胞关系对儿童青少年社会性发展的作用机制和干预措施,加强本土化研究。     

Israeli kindergarten children's gender constancy for others' counter‐stereotypic toy play and appearance: the role of sibling gender and relative age

To test divergent theoretical predictions as to the impact of having a younger or older, same‐sex sibling or opposite‐sex sibling on other gender constancy, Israeli kindergarten children in two‐child families responded to a gender constancy task in which a male and female picture target engaged in counter‐stereotypic toy play and adopted counter‐stereotypic appearance. Children were also asked whether the target child could change sex at will and to explain the difference between boys and girls. Relative age of sibling, both independently and in interaction with participant sex, was associated with greater gender constancy in the face of counter‐stereotypic toy play. Relative age of sibling and sibling sex was independently associated with greater gender constancy in the face of counter‐stereotypic appearance. In both cases, children with a younger sibling evidenced greater gender constancy. Boys, especially ones with a male sibling, referred most explicitly to target's birth sex in accounting for his or her being unable to change sex at will. Genital and anatomical differences between boys and girls were cited more often by children who referred explicitly to target's birth sex and had a younger sibling. The results were discussed in the context of theories of gender development and the socialization of gender within the family. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

No own-age bias in 3-year-old children: More evidence for the role of early experience in building face-processing biases

This study aimed to investigate the presence of an own-age bias in young children who accumulated different amounts of early experience with child faces. Discrimination abilities for upright and inverted adult and child faces were tested using a delayed two-alternative, forced-choice matching-to-sample task in two groups of 3-year-old children, one composed of first-born children and the other composed of children who, from the time of their birth, had daily exposure to a child face through the presence of an older sibling in their home. Children without an older sibling were better at differentiating among adult faces than among child faces and showed an inversion effect that was selective for adult faces. Children with an older sibling were equally skilled at differentiating upright adult and child faces and showed inversion effects of comparable magnitude for both face types. Results support the notion that face representational space of younger children is tuned to adult faces and suggest that age biases during early childhood are dependent on the effects of early experience.     

Stigma building blocks: how instruction and experience teach children about rejection by outgroups

Gaining an understanding of intergroup relations and outgroup rejection is an important childhood development. Children learn about rejection by outgroups via their own experiences and external instruction. A comparison of the impact of experience and instruction on first-, third-, and fifth-grade children's evaluations of rejection by outgroups in a minimal-groups paradigm suggests that the relative impact of experience and instruction differs as children age. In Study 1, younger children were more influenced by instruction, and older children were more influenced by what they experienced for themselves. In Study 2, younger children were more influenced by instruction, even when that instruction conflicted with what they experienced; older children were more influenced by their own experiences, even when those experiences contradicted what they were told to expect. These findings suggest that children begin learning about outgroup rejection through instruction but start to rely more on their own experiences as they age.     

Stereotypes and beliefs about different ethnic groups in Spain. A study with Spanish and Latin American children living in Madrid

96 Spanish and Latin American children from 3 grades in Madrid reported their knowledge of positive and negative stereotypes regarding Spaniards, Gypsies, Latin American and Chinese people. Their personal beliefs about these four ethnic groups were also assessed. Stereotypes about Spaniards were perceived as overwhelmingly positive and least negatively while stereotypes about Gypsies were rarely positive and often negative. Spanish children attributed more positive and fewer negative stereotypes to Chinese immigrants than Latin American children did. Older children reported more positive stereotypes about Gypsies than younger children and older Spanish children reported fewer positive stereotypes for their own group than their younger counterparts. Older children's personal beliefs about Gypsies were less consistent with negative stereotypes than younger children's. Older children also showed greater discrepancy of their personal beliefs with positive stereotypes of Spaniards than younger children did. Findings are discussed within the context of socio-cognitive approaches.     

儿童关于图画作者年龄特征的认知发展研究

通过两项实验分别对96名4～7岁儿童和144名4～9岁儿童进行研究,考察了4～9岁儿童关于图画作者年龄特征的认知发展特点。结果表明:6岁前儿童不能恰当地推测图画作者的年龄特征,5岁到8岁间儿童在判断长于自己的作者的图画过程中表现出了"完好"倾向。研究认为早期儿童在图画判断过程中经历了一个以自我为中心到去自我中心的过程。研究为儿童美术欣赏教育提供了建议。     

An Initial Look at Sibling Reports on Children's Behavior: Comparisons with Children's Self-Reports and Relations with Siblings' Self-Reports and Sibling Relationships

The authors examined siblings' reports of children's depression, anxiety, and aggression, and their reports of the sibling relationship, and compared them with children's self-reports. In two samples, including 169 sibling pairs (age M = 9.98 years, SD = 1.51), no significant differences emerged in the levels of depression and anxiety found in siblings' reports of children's behavior and children's self-reports, although siblings reported children to have significantly higher levels of aggression than the children self-reported. Age, the difference in ages between siblings, sex, and sibling sex were not related to siblings' reports of children's behavior. The relations between children's and siblings' reports of children's behavior were significant, yet moderate (average r = .22). Both siblings' self-reports of internalizing behavior and their perceptions of aspects of the sibling relationship (affection, rivalry, hostility, and satisfaction with the sibling relationship) explained significant, and unique, variance in siblings' reports of children's internalizing behavior. The findings for aggressive behavior were similar, although siblings' perceptions of affection in the sibling relationship were not significantly related to their reports of children's aggression. The potential uses and benefits of sibling reports of children's behavior, and sibling and family relationships, are discussed.     

同胞共情：特点、影响因素及理论机制

同胞之间的交流和互动更能促进彼此共情的发展。随着“全面二孩”政策的实行,同胞共情成为国内外研究者共同关注的焦点。本文在同胞的视角下总结了同胞共情的共性特点和特异性特点,从个体、同胞、家庭三个维度阐述了同胞共情的影响因素。未来研究需要进一步注重文化,回归本土研究;加强双向机制研究,夯实理论框架;重视干预性研究,探索提升同胞共情的方法。     

友伴人际品格对儿童人际品格的影响:友伴数量的调节作用及儿童群体差异

友伴是儿童发展的重要影响源。本研究从儿童积极发展的视角探讨友伴人际品格（仁慈和公正）对儿童人际品格的影响及友伴数量在其中的调节作用,并检验了儿童的群体（学段、性别、是否独生）差异状况。研究采用班级同伴提名法及儿童品格调查问卷对1555名4~9年级儿童及其互提名友伴展开调查。结果发现：（1）友伴仁慈和公正显著预测所有儿童群体的仁慈和公正;（2）儿童的友伴数量更多时,友伴公正对其公正的预测作用更显著;该调节效应仅体现在初中生和男生群体上。研究结果表明,儿童与具有积极品格特征的友伴交往对其积极品格的发展至关重要,且对于特定群体（如初中生、男生）,与越多具有积极品质的友伴交往,其受到的积极影响越大。     

Benefits of cultural exposure and development of Korean perspective-taking ability for transracially adopted Korean children

This study investigated the benefits of cultural exposure for transracially adopted (TRA) Korean children's developmental understanding of being Korean. Fifty TRA Korean children living in the United States were interviewed to assess their understanding of the implications of their Korean status for peer relations and personal identities, using a model of perspective-taking ability (PTA). Results showed cultural exposure and chronological age were significant predictors of children's PTA for being Korean. Cultural exposure had a slightly stronger relationship with PTA development for younger children than older ones. Comparison with another sample suggested that nonadopted native Korean children in the United States for an average of 25 months achieved levels of PTA at earlier ages did TRA children but that level of cultural exposure mediated these age differences.     

Defense use and defense understanding in children

This study investigated the relation between children's use of defense mechanisms and their understanding of those defenses. We hypothesized that, once a child understands how a particular defense functions, the use of that defense will no longer be successful and will be replaced by another defense mechanism that is not yet understood. Defense use was assessed from the Thematic Appreception Test (TAT) stories told by 122 children; defense understanding was determined from the children's understanding of stories portraying defenses. The results indicated that younger children (mean age = 7-8) used the defense of denial more than the older children (mean age = 9-11). Older children understood the functioning of denial and projection better than the younger children. A comparison of children who did and did not understand a defense showed that younger children who understood the functioning of denial were less likely to themselves use denial. Likewise, older children who understood the functioning of projection were less likely to use this defense.     

Development of the concept of family in elementary school children

Two studies were conducted to examine the relation of age, gender, and family structure to children's understanding of the concept of family. In Study 1,387 children in Grades 1 through 6 were asked to classify various groupings of individuals as constituting or not constituting a family. Results showed both age and gender differences in children's conceptions of families: Younger children, especially boys, generally used concrete, absolute criteria for defining a family; younger girls were similar to older children in that they were more likely to employ abstract, relational criteria for family definition. Results also showed that children's own family structure was not related to their family definitions. In Study 2, 64 children from the original sample were given a measure of cognitive ability to examine whether differences in cognitive development or differences in socialization were a likely source of younger girls' more advanced understanding. Gender differences in cognitive ability did not emerge, suggesting that the gender effects in Study 1 reflected differences in the socialization of boys and girls. Implications of the findings for understanding children's reactions to family disruption are discussed.     

Mediation in a sibling context: the relations of older siblings' mediating behaviour and younger siblings' task performance

We investigated the sibling relationship as a context for cognitive development. Forty preschoolers (ages 5–6) and their younger siblings (ages 2–3) were visited at home. Four games were presented to the older siblings and they were asked (a) to estimate how well their younger sibling will perform on each game and (b) to teach the younger sibling how to use the games. The older siblings' mediating behaviours during the teaching session and the younger siblings' performance on the four tasks were coded. The frequency of mediating behaviours—including attention focusing, amplifying affect and providing meaning, fostering a sense of competence, regulating of the learning process, de‐contextualization, and negative feedback in the form of mocking and laughing at errors, predicted the younger siblings' task performance. The older sibling's accurate perception of the younger child's competence was uniquely predictive of task performance. The highest amount of mediation was observed in older‐brother–younger‐brother pairs, in particular the behaviours of negative feedback and amplifying affect. Results contribute to the discussion on the role of siblings as moderators of cognitive development and are discussed in terms of Vygotsky's cultural–historical perspective on apprenticeship. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.