刻板印象从内容模型到系统模型的发展与应用

21世纪以来,在刻板印象研究中最受瞩目的当属刻板印象内容模型（Stereotype Content Model, SCM）的提出。它通过热情和能力二个维度区分对不同群体的刻板印象。新近的系统模型则将SCM与群际情绪、行为反应相结合,并凸现了道德维度,开创性地提出了群际情绪-刻板印象-行为趋向系统模型（Behaviors from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes Map, BIAS Map）。这一系统模型是对刻板印象内容模型的有意义延伸,同时二者的有机结合进一步促进了刻板印象内群体与群体间研究的整合性,较之又增添了认知-情绪-行为与刻板印象预测之间的联结。     

健全人对不同能力残疾人的刻板印象:基于SCM模型的研究

基于刻板印象内容模型(SCM),探讨了健全人对不同能力水平残疾人的刻板印象.其中,实验1基于对残疾人刻板印象内容量表的修订以及对能力发挥度不同的残疾人图片的筛选,考察了健全人对残疾人的外显刻板印象.实验2采用单类别内隐联想测验(SC-IAT)考察了健全人对残疾人的内隐刻板印象.结果发现:(1)在外显层面上,被试对高能力残疾人表现出高胜任且高热情的积极刻板印象,而对低能力残疾人表现出低胜任但高热情的混合刻板印象;(2)在内隐层面上,被试对高能力残疾人表现出高胜任且高热情的积极刻板印象,但对低能力残疾人表现出低胜任且低热情的消极刻板印象;(3)残疾人能力的有效发挥可显著改善被试对其胜任度和热情度的外显及内隐刻板印象.     

新闻报道对犯罪和好人刻板印象形成与改变的影响

新闻报道是刻板印象形成和转变的重要影响因素,为探究新闻报道在积极与消极刻板印象的形成与转变过程中的作用,采用实验法探究被试对虚构群体的犯罪和好人刻板印象的形成与改变过程。首先,通过操作八篇报道中犯罪事件和助人事件的比例将被试随机分为先形成犯罪刻板印象组、先形成好人刻板印象组和控制组三组。第二天,呈现另外八篇新的关于该虚构群体的报道,确保两天内各组被试阅读的犯罪和助人报道的数量一致。结果发现：第一天的媒体报道能够有效地诱导被试形成相应的犯罪刻板印象或者好人刻板印象,第二天的新闻报道也会诱导被试第一天形成的刻板印象在第二天发生改变。并且,被试在第二天对先形成犯罪刻板印象组的热情评价高于先形成好人刻板印象组和控制组,研究结果证实了刻板印象转变过程中的标准转换模型。     

刻板印象内容对刻板印象抑制反弹效应的影响

通过两个实验探讨了刻板印象内容对刻板印象抑制反弹效应的影响。实验1以"罪犯"(低温情,低能力)和"老年人"(高温情,低能力)构成不同类型的刻板印象群体,发现在温情和能力上得分都低的群体与温情高能力低或温情低能力高的群体相比,在刻板印象抑制后更可能出现反弹效应。值得注意的是,反弹效应仅在目标群体(罪犯)的能力维度上出现。在实验2中,"老年人"和"富人"构成作为两种不同的混合型刻板印象群体。结果表明:对于高能力低温情群体的抑制比对高温情低能力群体的抑制更困难。     

刻板印象的激活效应:行为和ERPs证据

以刻板印象表征中的核心内容——刻板特质词作为研究材料,采用分类-确认范式对刻板印象激活效应的时间进程及其认知机制进行了探讨。以性别范畴词"男"/"女"作为启动刺激,以性别刻板特质词作为靶子,特质词与范畴词构成一致和冲突两种情境,记录了34名被试(男女各半)对特质词与范畴词进行一致性判断时的行为反应和ERPs。结果发现:(1)刻板印象冲突情境下,因刻板印象激活效应的作用,被试的反应时要比刻板印象一致情境下更长;不同性别的被试均表现出性别内群体范畴词激活优势效应,即内群体范畴词启动条件下反应时更短。(2)刻板印象激活效应对早期ERP成分(P1、N170、N100、P2)没有影响,在刻板印象冲突情境下诱发了额-中区更显著的N400,该成分标志着刻板印象的激活效应;不同性别的被试均在内群体范畴词启动下诱发了波幅更大的P600。(3)刻板印象的激活效应以及内群体范畴词激活优势效应均发生在知觉后阶段。     

老化刻板印象研究现状及展望

老化刻板印象是人们对老年人所持有的观念与预期,它能显著影响老化刻板印象持有者的生理功能、认知功能和行为结果。现有研究主要集中在老化刻板印象的机制、影响因素和中介变量方面。研究发现,老化刻板印象是通过内化形成的,刻板印象威胁理论和自我刻板化是解释老化刻板印象的两种作用机制。认知加工过程中的抑制能力、情境和文化差异是影响老化刻板印象的主要因素,而老化自我知觉和刻板期望则是老化刻板印象影响效果变量的中介因素。未来研究除了要继续探讨意识水平、情境因素、个体特征对老化刻板印象的影响以及老化刻板印象对不同年龄群体影响的特点以外,还应关注中介和干预研究,并进一步加强跨文化研究。     

社会认知中热情与能力的补偿效应

刻板印象内容模型(SCM)提出了热情与能力社会认知维度, 这两个维度之间存在着特殊的补偿效应。补偿效应是在比较两个基本维度的情境下, 为了区分两个社会目标, 通过热情与能力之间的补偿使社会目标形成反差的一种倾向。其心理机制可能通过对比效应、系统公正理论或混合印象预期理论来解释。可以通过直接和间接的方法来测量补偿效应。补偿效应包括单维补偿和双维补偿两种基本类型, 其中单维补偿又可分为能力补偿热情以及热情补偿能力两种。补偿效应的研究仍处于起步阶段, 其理论研究和实际应用研究仍需要进一步深化和扩展。     

性别刻板印象的人际传播特点研究——基于社会认同理论或社会支配理论?

为探讨性别刻板印象的传播更符合社会认同理论还是社会支配理论的假设,采用单一复述故事法来研究不同性别的传播者、故事主人公和听众在传播一致性性别刻板印象信息和不一致性别刻板印象信息的过程中所表现出的特点。结果发现:男性更少地传播不利于维持阶层差异的不一致性刻板印象,女性更多地传播打破现有阶层划分的男性不一致刻板印象。这些传播特点都较为支持社会支配理论的假设。。     

道德:刻板印象内容的新维度

目的:明确中国社会群体刻板印象内容的维度及指标。方法:预研究通过88名被试筛选描述中国群体刻板印象的形容词;研究1测量217名被试对8个中国社会典型群体刻板印象,并构建因子模型;研究2通过272名被试对因子模型进行验证。结果:(1)建立刻板印象内容的热情和能力二因子模型,以及道德、社交性和能力的三因子模型;(2)三因子模型较优于二因子模型;(3)获得中国群体刻板印象内容的17个形容词指标。结论:中国人的刻板印象内容模型由道德、社交性和能力三个维度构成。     

刻板印象提升与刻板印象促进

刻板印象提升指个体意识到外群体具有消极刻板印象, 而产生与受诋毁的外群体向下的社会比较, 以提高个体自我效能感和动机, 进而提高表现; 刻板印象促进是积极刻板印象被激活后的积极结果, 指当个体处在他们的积极刻板印象身份被激活的情境中, 表现上升的一种现象。在刻板印象提升与刻板印象促进概念论述的基础上, 重点探讨了调节变量和结果影响这两种联系, 并从相关概念、被试要求和心理机制这三方面论述了这两者的区别。最后, 指出未来研究应加强对二者的关注, 消除其在概念上的混淆, 开展相关心理与神经机制的研究, 以及结合刻板印象阻抗进行探讨。     

Dehumanizing the lowest of the low: neuroimaging responses to extreme out-groups

Traditionally, prejudice has been conceptualized as simple animosity. The stereotype content model (SCM) shows that some prejudice is worse. The SCM previously demonstrated separate stereotype dimensions of warmth (low-high) and competence (low-high), identifying four distinct out-group clusters. The SCM predicts that only extreme out-groups, groups that are both stereotypically hostile and stereotypically incompetent (low warmth, low competence), such as addicts and the homeless, will be dehumanized. Prior studies show that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is necessary for social cognition. Functional magnetic resonance imaging provided data for examining brain activations in 10 participants viewing 48 photographs of social groups and 12 participants viewing objects; each picture dependably represented one SCM quadrant. Analyses revealed mPFC activation to all social groups except extreme (low-low) out-groups, who especially activated insula and amygdala, a pattern consistent with disgust, the emotion predicted by the SCM. No objects, though rated with the same emotions, activated the mPFC. This neural evidence supports the prediction that extreme out-groups may be perceived as less than human, or dehumanized.     

Stereotypes of Norwegian social groups

We present a pilot study and two main studies that address the nature of stereotypes of social groups in Norway within the framework of the Stereotype Content Model (SCM). The first study focused on stereotypes of a wide range of groups across categories such as gender, age, religious conviction, socioeconomic and health status. The second study focused on stereotypes of immigrant groups. Participants (n = 244 and n = 63, respectively) rated the groups on perceived warmth, competence, status, and competition. Results from both studies support the applicability of the SCM in Norway and provides a unique insight into stereotypes of Norwegian social groups.     

Warm,but Maybe Not So Competent?—Contemporary Implicit Stereotypes of Women and Men in Germany

A fundamental model of stereotypes, the stereotype content model (SCM, Fiske et al. 2002), postulates that stereotypes of many social groups vary on two core dimensions: warmth and competence. In line with traditional gender stereotypes, the SCM predicts women to be perceived as warmer than men, and men to be perceived as more competent than women. Research on implicit measurement of stereotypes suggests that, next to people’s underlying beliefs, a major predictor is the tendency to favor one’s own group (Rudman et al. 2001). We examined gender stereotypes concerning warmth and competence, using implicit association tests (IATs, Greenwald et al. 1998) and drawing on diverse samples of women and men in eastern and western Germany (i.e., students and non-students; total N?=?384). On the warmth dimension, an overall women-warmth stereotype was found, confirming predictions of the SCM. On the competence dimension, associations of own gender and competence were observed for both men and women, suggesting the impact of self-favoring processes. Findings are discussed with respect to social role theory (Eagly 1987) and the changing roles of women.     

Perceived social structural relations and group stereotypes: A test of the Stereotype Content Model in Malaysia

Using data from two studies, the current research tests the Stereotype Content Model (SCM) within a Malaysian context using Chinese and ethnic Malay participants. The aim of the research is to examine the theoretical underpinnings of the SCM in a new context by investigating the role of aspects of the perceived social structure that have not been considered previously. In line with the SCM it is found that the two dimensions of warmth and competence underlie in‐group and out‐group stereotypes in Malaysia. In addition, the in‐group was evaluated more positively than the out‐group on both dimensions. Furthermore, perceived economic social status rather than cultural or power status was related to out‐group competence (Study 1), and to out‐group warmth (Studies 1 and 2). Higher perceived economic competition was weakly and not consistently associated with less out‐group warmth, and political competition was not related to warmth.     

社会层级的内隐刻板印象：权力与地位的不同作用

采用探测词再认范式,考察社会层级的内隐刻板印象。结果发现,在能力推理上,无论地位高低,个体对高权力推理为积极的反应时显著长于消极,对低权力推理为消极的反应时显著长于积极;在热情推理上,无论权力高低,个体对高地位推理为积极的反应时显著长于消极,对低地位推理为消极的反应时显著长于积极。这表明,权力和地位在热情和能力维度的刻板印象中起着不同的作用,其中权力正向预测能力,地位正向预测热情。     

The effect of research method type on stereotypes’ content: A brief research report

Stereotype Content Model (SCM) emphasizes the content rather than the underlying processes of the stereotypes and the content might be influenced by several cultural dimensions (e.g., individualism vs. collectivism). The main dimensions of SCM—namely warmth and competence—underlying various contents are assumed to be universal. However, from a cognitive science paradigm, we argue that different research methods (i.e., data collections and data analysis) might also yield different stereotype contents that might impact the universality versus specificity problem in the SCM. Indeed, using a sample from a collectivistic country (i.e., Romania), we found that using different methods in data collection (i.e., unstructured vs. semi-structured vs. structured interview) and different methods of data analysis (i.e., availability vs. accessibility scores) might be an important research strategy to counter artefacts and confusions in the universality versus specificity problem related to the SCM. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

大学生对穷人的消极刻板印象及猜测偏向

主要考察大学生对穷人的消极刻板印象及猜测偏向。实验1中的两个单类内隐联想测验结果与前人研究基本一致：虽然被试对穷人热情的评价相对积极,但总体上认为穷人低能力、低热情。实验2通过源监测任务发现,在忘记特质词来源的情况下,被试倾向于猜测消极特质词来自贫困者,积极特质词来自小康者。研究不仅证实了大学生对穷人的消极刻板印象,而且进一步发现大学生存在对穷人的消极猜测偏向。     

Trait‐Related Concepts Activate Stereotypically Consistent Concepts on the Same Stereotype Dimension,But May not Spread to the Other Stereotype Dimension

Applying the stereotype‐content model, which categorizes stereotypes into two dimensions (warmth and competence), we investigated whether gender‐stereotype‐related concepts activate other concepts on the same dimension and concepts on the other dimension. To test this, we conducted two experiments, both based on the Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm. In Experiment 1, we conceptually replicated the results of previous research, which revealed that when trait‐related words are presented to participants, gender‐stereotype‐related concepts induce the later false recognition of stereotypically consistent non‐presented words. Then, in Experiment 2, we revealed that exposure to gender‐stereotype‐related concepts induces the false recognition of non‐presented words relevant to stereotypical concepts on the same dimension, but not those on the other dimension. We conclude by discussing the underlying process of ambivalent stereotype activations, referring to implicit processes and system justification.