文化差异视角下个体合作行为的产生、影响机制建构及认知神经基础

合作行为是指个体或群体之间为了实现共同的目标和利益而进行的协同行为或意向。本文基于行为-认知-大脑的三重映射关系,对合作行为的文化差异性进行了深入阐释,并在此基础上构建了文化影响合作行为的社会认知中介模型;未来研究可从实证视角对合作行为文化差异的社会认知内容、认知神经机制等方面进行验证、挖掘和改善。     

群体共情对群际关系的影响：基于社会冲突解决的视角

摘要：群体共情是指群体成员内化和间接体验另一群体成员的认知和情绪情感的过程。群体共情与个体共情不同,表现在身份感、共情偏好和文化影响的差异等方面。群体共情对群际关系具有促进作用,有助于减少群际冲突,促进群际亲社会行为。共情动机和文化框架转换是分析群体共情对群际关系促进机制的两个视角。未来研究可以探索群体共情与个体共情神经机制的差异,建立群体共情对群际关系影响的综合模型,探索群体共情在群际关系改善中的作用机制。     

The Perfect Mix: Regulatory Complementarity and the Speed-Accuracy Balance in Group Performance

ABSTRACT— In this research, we varied the composition of 4-member groups. One third of the groups consisted exclusively of "locomotors," individuals predominantly oriented toward action. Another third of the groups consisted exclusively of "assessors," individuals predominantly oriented toward evaluation. The final third of the groups consisted of a mix of locomotors and assessors. We found that the groups containing only locomotors were faster than the groups containing only assessors, and the groups containing only assessors were more accurate than the groups containing only locomotors. The groups containing a mix of assessors and locomotors were as fast as the groups containing only locomotors and as accurate as the groups containing only assessors. These results echo findings at the individual level of analysis, and suggest that the testing and action components of operating systems independently contribute to performance both intra- and interpersonally.     

The development of children's preferences for equality and equity across 13 individualistic and collectivist cultures

A concern for fairness is a fundamental and universal element of morality. To examine the extent to which cultural norms are integrated into fairness cognitions and influence social preferences regarding equality and equity, a large sample of children (N 2,163) aged 4–11 were tested in 13 diverse countries. Children participated in three versions of a third‐party, contextualized distributive justice game between two hypothetical recipients differing in terms of wealth, merit, and empathy. Social decision‐making in these games revealed universal age‐related shifts from equality‐based to equity‐based distribution motivations across cultures. However, differences in levels of individualism and collectivism between the 13 countries predicted the age and extent to which children favor equity in each condition. Children from the most individualistic cultures endorsed equitable distributions to a greater degree than children from more collectivist cultures when recipients differed in regards to wealth and merit. However, in an empathy context where recipients differed in injury, children from the most collectivist cultures exhibited greater preferences to distribute resource equitably compared to children from more individualistic cultures. Children from the more individualistic cultures also favored equitable distributions at an earlier age than children from more collectivist cultures overall. These results demonstrate aspects of both cross‐cultural similarity and divergence in the development of fairness preferences.     

Conceptualizing Trauma and Resilience Across Diverse Contexts

Abstract

This paper offers a multicultural understanding of trauma and resilience as experienced in the lives of individuals from diverse cultural and racial backgrounds. The research and clinical literature on resilience has focused largely if not exclusively on individual personality traits and coping styles, and has neglected to explore all possible sources and expressions of resilience in individuals and groups. For many ethnic minorities, traditional notions of resilience, shaped largely by middle class European and North American values, may not capture culturally more familiar modes of positive adaptation to adverse and traumatic experience. This paper explores the concept of resilience as a multidetermined phenomenon, and considers the implications of this perspective for clinical research and intervention with ethnic minorities.     

情境对共情的影响

共情指的是个体在与人交往的过程中共享并理解他人的情绪状态的倾向, 包括认知共情和情绪共情两种成分。现实生活中的共情总是发生在一定的具体情境中, 受到情境因素的影响。其中, 情境的公开性或私密性、意义性等均在不同程度上影响了共情的产生或共情反应的强烈程度。共情对象在特定情境中与共情主体之间的群际关系、人际关系等也是重要的情境因素, 共情主体对于和自己属于同一群体或拥有较亲密人际关系的他人更容易产生共情。情境对共情的影响通过自上而下和自下而上两种方式实现。有关情境对共情的影响研究虽然取得了一定的成果, 但仍然有进一步拓展的空间, 未来的研究需要在情境因素的内涵上进行深入挖掘, 从认知加工的角度对情境影响共情的机制做更为细致、微观地解析, 还可以从共情主体的视角明确个体差异如何调节了情境对共情的影响作用。     

Why it pays to get inside the head of your opponent: the differential effects of perspective taking and empathy in negotiations

The current research explored whether two related yet distinct social competencies -- perspective taking (the cognitive capacity to consider the world from another individual's viewpoint) and empathy (the ability to connect emotionally with another individual) -- have differential effects in negotiations. Across three studies, using both individual difference measures and experimental manipulations, we found that perspective taking increased individuals' ability to discover hidden agreements and to both create and claim resources at the bargaining table. However, empathy did not prove nearly as advantageous and at times was detrimental to discovering a possible deal and achieving individual profit. These results held regardless of whether the interaction was a negotiation in which a prima facie solution was not possible or a multiple-issue negotiation that required discovering mutually beneficial trade-offs. Although empathy is an essential tool in many aspects of social life, perspective taking appears to be a particularly critical ability in negotiations.     

The group as an object in the cultural field

This paper illuminates the interplay between group and individual processes by exploring members' notions of the group itself. What members hold in common about the "group" is understood as an object in the cultural field, which is a particular kind of transitional phenomenon (Winnicott). The paper connects this notion to Bion's concept of "basic assumptions," and describes members' motivations for creating the "group" as well as its role in the psychotherapy group. The object in the cultural field is then further elaborated in its more general role in the relation between the individual and the group, which leads to a consideration of psychotherapy groups in terms of their value in facilitating living in the social world.     

The interplay between feedback-related negativity and individual differences in altruistic punishment: An EEG study

To date, the interplay betwexen neurophysiological and individual difference factors in altruistic punishment has been little understood. To examine this issue, 45 individuals participated in a Dictator Game with punishment option while the feedback-related negativity (FRN) was derived from the electroencephalogram (EEG). Unlike previous EEG studies on the Dictator Game, we introduced a third party condition to study the effect of fairness norm violations in addition to employing a first person perspective. For the first time, we also examined the role of individual differences, specifically fairness concerns, positive/negative affectivity, and altruism/empathy as well as recipients’ financial situation during altruistic punishment. The main results show that FRN amplitudes were more pronounced for unfair than for fair assignments in both the first person and third party perspectives. These findings suggest that FRN amplitudes are sensitive to fairness norm violations and play a crucial role in the recipients’ evaluation of dictator assignments. With respect to individual difference factors, recipients’ current financial situation affected the FRN fairness effect in the first person perspective, indicating that when being directly affected by the assignments, more affluent participants experienced stronger violations of expectations in altruistic punishment decisions. Regarding individual differences in trait empathy, in the third party condition FRN amplitudes were more pronounced for those who scored lower in empathy. This may suggest empathy as another motive in third party punishment. Independent of the perspective taken, higher positive affect was associated with more punishment behavior, suggesting that positive emotions may play an important role in restoring violated fairness norms.     

A narrative social constructionist approach to therapeutic empathy

The concept of empathy has been a centrol conceptual element in approaches to counselling and psychotherapy that emphasise exploration of meaning in the context of a facilitative relationship. However, the existing literature on therapeutic empathy lacks theoretical coherence. a narrative social constructionist perspective represents a theoretical approach that enables the integration of diverse strands of clinical observation and research into the creation of empathic understanding in counselling. From a social constructionist position, therapeutic empathy can be understood as a relational process, a step-by-step co-construction by counsellor and client of the life-narrative of the client. In this paper, the Barrett-Lennard (1981) cyclical model of empathy is used as a fremework for examining the counsellor and client actions, strategies and tasks that constitute empathic engagement around the task of emploring and re-authoring life-narratives. Constructionist analysis of the cultural origins of the concept of empathy suggest some limitations of this way of conceptualising what happens in therapy. The implications of these ideas for theory, training and research are discussed.     

国家内部地域文化差异及其对组织的影响

近年来,跨文化管理研究越来越关注国家内部（次国家层面）地域文化差异。在类似中国这样幅员辽阔历史悠久的多民族国家中,经济发展带来的人口流动和企业的跨地域布局使得员工与管理者都需要面对不同外部地域文化环境和组织内部人员地域多样化的挑战,研究国家内部地域文化差异及其对组织的影响有重要意义。 现有实证研究的一个重要共识是国家内部地域文化差异普遍存在于亚洲、欧洲和南北美洲各国。覆盖的国家类型多样,既有美国、巴西等地理跨度较大或有多民族多宗教历史文化背景的国家,也有日本、德国等地理跨度较小或历史上民族和信仰成分较单一的国家;既包括高度工业化的发达国家,也有发展中国家;既有集体主义倾向的东南亚和南美国家,也有个人主义倾向的北美和西欧国家。差异的内容主要包括霍夫斯泰德和施瓦茨的文化价值观维度,尤其是个人主义-集体主义。此外,不同国家之间内部地域文化差异的程度也显著不同。 聚焦中国大陆的研究主要关注了大陆地域文化区的划分和地域文化差异的内容维度。研究早期主要是从理论上根据影响文化的外部因素（如地理环境特征）讨论了文化差异的存在和文化区域划分,后来直接根据价值观相似度对不同省市或地区进行聚类;近年来,少数研究进一步依据多个指标综合划分地域文化区,并开始假设和验证不同区域价值观对个人和组织的影响。本文整合现有的几种中国大陆地域文化区划,用层次聚类法,获得了有较大共识的8个文化区。现有实证研究结果表明,中国大陆在集体主义、长期导向、风险偏好、儒家价值观等文化价值观维度存在地域差异。 有关国家内部地域文化差异如何影响组织行为和企业经营管理的实证文献仍然非常有限。 从跨地区文化比较的视角看,国家内部不同地区的文化价值观有可能影响当地人群的消费模式、员工行为、管理风格和决策（如投资）,进而影响企业生产效率和创新。从跨地区文化互动研究看,母公司企业文化与子公司所在地文化互动融合的模式有可能影响子公司经营绩效。最后,国家内部地域文化差异的程度不仅有可能影响本国企业跨地区布局的方式,还有可能影响企业跨境投资方式、企业国际化程度和经营绩效。 未来研究应更多的关注个人主义-集体主义以外的文化维度,探索主位视角来丰富研究理论和测量方法,尤其亟需更多对地域文化差异和跨地域互动在个人,团队和组织层面的结果的研究。最后,文化随着经济活动、政治变化、人口流动、对外交流互动而不断演化。在经济持续发展、商业活动地理布局不断拓展、人员流动极大增加、改革开放进一步深化的大背景下,我国大陆各区域及港澳台地区的地域文化价值观的演变,及其组织中不同层面的行为和结果的影响也值得探究。     

文化对个体风险感知的影响:文化认知理论的解释

文化认知理论旨在从个体层面研究与文化因素相关的个体风险感知差异。它以"格-群"维度划分文化世界观,"格"维度衡量社会的制度化程度,"群"维度衡量社会群体对个体的影响程度,由此编制文化认知量表以测量个体文化理念差异。目前已验证认同保护认知、偏见同化与群体极化、文化易得性、文化可信性、文化认同确认五种作用机制,并在情感启发式研究的基础上引入文化冲突模因作为中介变量建立理论模型。后续研究可推进文化认知测量工具的跨文化检验与本土化修订,并在具体风险主题研究的基础上探索切实可行的公共风险管理对策。     

Cultural Background and Individualistic–Collectivistic Values in Relation to Similarity, Perspective Taking, and Empathy

A path model testing antecedents and consequences of perceived similarity was examined for Asian and European Australian participants ( N  = 240). Cultural background and values were measured, and participants read scenarios describing a target in distress acting according to individualistic or collectivistic values. Consistent with past research, feeling similar to the target was linked to perspective taking and empathy. Moreover, Asian participants were more collectivistic, and collectivistic values were linked to higher empathy. In the present data, however, both endorsed higher levels of collectivism than individualism; individualism scores were equal; and the two values were positively correlated. Moreover, neither cultural background nor values were consistently linked to similarity. Implications are discussed for research on cultural background, values, and social interactions.     

Advancing the Applied Psychology of Inclusion and Diversity: A Special Issue by Fons van de Vijver

This introduction to the special issue outlines key issues in research on inclusion—as the process of recognizing an individual’s needs for both belonging and distinctiveness. Whereas past research often focuses on diversity in relation to discrimination, this special issue attempts to offer a positive lens and asks how we can build inclusive societies. The answers range from emphasizing similarities based on multiple group memberships (intersectionality); creating inclusive workplaces by nurturing leadership that is authentic, respectful, creating belonging and valuing individuals’ unique contributions (ideas, skills, etc.); to developing bridging social capital as a means of cultural integration (vs. separation). The methodological approaches employed by the contributions in this special issue include an experimental vignette study, comparative studies of different ethnicities within a country and cross-culturally comparative work spanning multiple countries. The special issue is dedicated to the memory of Fons van de Vijver, who had initiated the special issue and sadly died last year.     

Essentialism in Social Representations of Citizenship: An Analysis of Greeks' and Migrants' Discourse

Following a Social Representations approach, the article examines the representations of citizenship held by both migrants and Greek citizens in Greece after the announcement of a heavily debated citizenship legislation. Essentialism, a way of representing social categories as holding an underlying essence that determines their characteristics, was used as an analytical tool to understand the inclusive or exclusive function of representations of citizenship towards migrants. Findings showed that Greeks construct representations based on ethnic, civic, and cultural ideas, while migrants construct representation of citizenship based on civic and cultural ideas. Essentialism was a way of constructing ethnic and cultural representations of citizenship and functioned in both exclusive and inclusive ways, but assimilatory terms accordingly. Civic and cultural representations of citizenship were constructed in nonessentialist ways and functioned in inclusive ways. However, from Greeks' perspective, civic inclusion was conditioned upon an often‐questioned legality of migrants and upon cultural assimilation terms. Studying both the content and the essentialist/nonessentialist formulation of representations of citizenship is an important tool in understanding the politics of inclusion and exclusion of citizens in the social arena.     

Finding "meaning" in psychology: a lay theories approach to self-regulation, social perception, and social development

Much of psychology focuses on universal principles of thought and action. Although an extremely productive pursuit, this approach, by describing only the "average person," risks describing no one in particular. This article discusses an alternate approach that complements interests in universal principles with analyses of the unique psychological meaning that individuals find in their experiences and interactions. Rooted in research on social cognition, this approach examines how people's lay theories about the stability or malleability of human attributes alter the meaning they give to basic psychological processes such as self-regulation and social perception. Following a review of research on this lay theories perspective in the field of social psychology, the implications of analyzing psychological meaning for other fields such as developmental, cultural, and personality psychology are discussed.     

Feminism and Women's Autonomy: the Challenge of Female Genital Cutting

Feminist studies of female genital cutting (FGC) provide ample evidence that many women exercise effective agency with respect to this practice, both as accommodators and as resisters. The influence of culture on autonomy is ambiguous: women who resist cultural mandates for FGC do not necessarily enjoy greater autonomy than do those women who accommodate the practice, yet it is clear that some social contexts are more conducive to autonomy than others. In this paper, I explore the implications for autonomy theory of these understandings of the relation between culture, FGC, and women's agency. I review the range of worldwide FGC practices – including "corrective" surgery for "ambiguous genitalia" in Western cultures as well as the various initiation rites observed in some African and Asian cultures – and the diverse cultural rationales for different forms of FGC. I argue that neither latitudinarian, value-neutral accounts of autonomy nor restrictive, value-saturated accounts adequately explain women's agentic position with respect to FGC. I then analyze a number of educational programs that have enhanced women's autonomy, especially by strengthening their introspection, empathy, and imagination. Such programs, which engage women's autonomy skills without exposing them to autonomy-disabling cultural alienation, promote autonomy-within-culture. This understanding of autonomy as socially situated, however, entails neither endorsement of FGC nor resignation to its persistence.     

共情的相关理论评述及动态模型探新

共情是发生在人际互动过程中的一种心理现象,恰当地共情不仅可以提高亲社会行为的发生几率,还可以有效抑制攻击行为。以往研究者大多从静态的角度对共情的定义、结构和机制等进行探讨,然而,共情作为一种心理过程,以动态的观点阐述其内部机制对于探讨共情的本质是十分必要的。本文首先回顾了以往研究者的共情定义,并在此基础上对共情进行了界定;之后在对共情相关的理论或模型评述的基础上提出了共情的动态模型,并结合以往的研究对动态模型进行了分析比较,最后是总结和对未来研究的展望。     

文化混搭:研究现状与发展方向

文化混搭指"不同文化在同一时空中呈现"的现象,是全球化背景下心理学中文化研究的新热点。文化混搭研究代表了继跨文化心理学、文化心理学和多元文化心理学之后,心理学文化研究的第四个阶段——文化会聚主义心理学,并从不同方面延伸与拓展了传统的多元文化研究。已有文献从文化混搭对个体心理和行为的影响、个体对文化混搭的反应及心理机制等角度展开了实证研究。未来研究应进一步明晰文化混搭的概念定义和研究范畴、提炼和比较其不同表现形式、探究既有研究结论中的不一致性、比较文化元素的混搭与非文化元素的混搭的异同、采用多学科多层次的研究方法和手段。     

The Relevance of Sociocultural Theory to Culturally Diverse Partnerships and Communities

The phenomenal growth of information technology and globalization promises a future where education about diversity and difference will be very significant. In this information age where existing knowledge and technology are constantly being replaced in an ever changing interdependent global environment, the fundamentals of education are also changing. Education will focus on building new knowledge rather than passing on existing knowledge. The increasing interconnectedness between cultures and their concomitant intermixing as a result of globalization requires that pedagogies about cultural diversity also focus on creating new knowledge and meanings about cultures as they change. In this article, we discuss sociocultural theory as an alternative educational pedagogy that situates the teaching and learning of cultural diversity within rapidly changing local and global conditions. We argue that features of this theory are especially relevant to providing a guiding pedagogy for valuing difference in inclusive environments. We engage the literature on cross-cultural communication and collaboration between culturally diverse professionals and parents of children with disabilities to illustrate sociocultural perspectives on conceptualizing cultural differences and their interaction, and the possibilities for creating culturally inclusive partnerships and communities.