The relationship between competitive anxiety and imagery use

Abstract

Imagery has been proposed to be an effective strategy for controlling levels of competitive anxiety, but little b known about how imagery functions to achieve this. This study explored the relationship between imagery use. imagery ability. competitive anxiety and performance. Fifty-seven Junior North American Roller Skating Championship competitors completed the revised Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ-R), the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ), and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory—2 (CSAI-2). Results from stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed visual imagery ability and motivational arousal imagery to be predictors of cognitive state anxiety. Visual imagery ability also predicted somatic state anxiety. while motivational mastery imagery was a predictor of self-confidence. With respect to the relationship between imagery use and imagery ability, high imagery ability was associated with higher imagery use. Finally, self-confidence and kinesthetic imagery ability scores correctly classified a majority of the subjects as medalists versus non-medalists. These results suggest that imagery can be used to help control competitive anxiety levels and enhance self-confidence.     

The effects of a motivational general-arousal imagery intervention upon preperformance symptoms in male rugby union players

ObjectivesTo investigate the efficacy of a motivational general-arousal based imagery strategy in modifying precompetitive symptom interpretations.MethodA staggered multiple baseline single-subject design was employed with five male collegiate rugby union players (M = 24.5; SD = 3.05). The dependent variable was monitored over a full competitive season via measures of precompetitive anxiety and affect together with follow-up social validation procedures.ResultsMore facilitative interpretations of symptoms associated with competitive anxiety, and greater self-confidence levels were reported postintervention, together with changes in positive and negative affect.ConclusionsThe findings highlight the importance of employing individualized imagery with motivational general-arousal content to modify performers' perceptions of their precompetitive experiences. This effect is proposed to occur directly through adaptive changes in individuals' psychological response systems and indirectly via the protection mechanisms associated with enhanced efficacy expectations.     

Sports specific metacognitions and competitive state anxiety in athletes: A comparison between different sporting types

This study investigated the relationship between sport related metacognitions with state anxiety dimensions, and compared how sporting categories affected these variables, among an online sample of athletes (N = 187). A MANOVA revealed there were significant differences between sporting types in metacognitive beliefs relating to the utility of rumination and arousal, the need to control thoughts, and levels of somatic anxiety. Correlations and multiple regressions showed that that in contrast to the relationships with self-confidence, cognitive and somatic state anxiety were positively associated with specific dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs, but negatively related to metacognitive processes. Overall, these findings highlight that: (a) athletes might adopt metacognitions to meet the different cognitive demands of sport types; and (b) metacognitions are in part responsible for the occurrence of state anxiety and self-confidence during competitions. The findings of this study have implications toward how researchers and sports practitioners approach the comprehensive nature of competitive anxiety.     

Mechanisms underlying the self-talk–performance relationship: The effects of motivational self-talk on self-confidence and anxiety

ObjectivesThe present study examined the effects of motivational self-talk on self-confidence, anxiety, and task performance in young athletes.MethodsParticipants were 72 tennis players. The experiment was conducted in five sessions: baseline assessment, three training sessions, and final assessment. After the baseline assessment participants were divided and assigned randomly into experimental and control groups. The two groups followed the same training program with the experimental group practicing the use of self-talk. In the last session, the final assessment took place. A forehand drive test was used to evaluate task performance, and the Competitive Anxiety Inventory-2R was used to assess self-confidence and anxiety.ResultsA two-way mixed model MANOVA revealed that task performance improved for the experimental group (p < .01) and remained stable for the control group; self-confidence increased (p < .01) and cognitive anxiety decreased (p < .05) for the experimental group, whereas no changes were observed for the control group. Correlation analysis revealed that changes in task performance were moderately related to changes in self-confidence (p < .05).ConclusionsThe results of the study showed that self-talk can enhance self-confidence and reduce cognitive anxiety. Furthermore, it is suggested that increases in self-confidence can be regarded as a viable function explaining the facilitating effects of self-talk on performance.     

Development and validation of the Achievement Goal Scale for Youth Sports

ObjectiveThe objective was to develop and validate an achievement goal scale for young athletes that was aligned with the 2 (mastery/ego)×2 (approach/avoidance) achievement goal framework.MethodA total of 1675 male and female athletes ranging in age from 9 to 14 years participated in the AGSYS scale development and validation phases. Items having a readability level of grade 4 (age 9) or below were written and evaluated in a series of studies to assess the reliability, factorial validity, and construct validity of the Mastery and Ego scales.DesignBoth correlational and experimental methods were used to assess reliability and validity.ResultsExploratory and confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated factorial validity in samples of 9–10-, 11–12-, and 13–14-year-old athletes, and the subscales correlated in a predicted fashion with one another, with other sport and academic goal orientation measures and with several other theoretically relevant variables, including coach-initiated motivational climate, competitive trait anxiety, sport enjoyment, motivation, and self-esteem. Scores also changed significantly in response to a motivational climate coach intervention.ConclusionThe Achievement Goal Scale for Youth Sports (AGSYS) appears to be a reliable and valid measure of achievement goal approach orientations in children between the ages of 9 and 14 years. We were not successful in developing corresponding avoidance goal orientation scales that were not highly correlated, raising the possibility that children do not cognitively differentiate between mastery-avoidance and ego-avoidance orientations.     

Anxiety symptom interpretation in high-anxious,defensive high-anxious,low-anxious and repressor sport performers

Abstract

For the first time in a sport setting this study examined the intensity and direction of the competitive state anxiety response in collegiate athletes as a function of four different coping styles: high-anxious, defensive high-anxious, low-anxious and repressors. Specifically, the study predicted that repressors would interpret competitive state anxiety symptoms as more facilitative compared to high-anxious, defensive high-anxious, and low-anxious performers. Separate Multivariate Analyses of Variance (MANOVA) were performed on the intensity and direction subscales of the modified Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). A significant main effect was identified for trait worry revealing that low trait anxious athletes reported lower intensities of cognitive and somatic anxiety and higher self-confidence and interpreted these as more facilitative than high trait anxious athletes. The prediction that performers with a repressive coping style would interpret state anxiety symptoms as more facilitative than performers with non-repressive coping styles was not supported.     

Self-confidence and anxiety interpretation: A qualitative investigation

Objectives: To examine performers’ retrospective explanations for the relationship between self-confidence, competitive anxiety intensity, and symptom interpretation toward performance.Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 elite performers to determine how self-confidence levels influenced the perceived effects of pre-competitive anxiety intensity and identify the confidence management strategies used to protect symptom interpretation.Results: Two causal networks were identified, showing self-confidence to influence the relationship between competitive anxiety intensity and symptom interpretation. In the absence of self-confidence, increases in competitive anxiety intensity were perceived as outside of the performers’ control and debilitating to performance. Under conditions of high self-confidence, increases in symptoms were reported to lead to positive perceptions of control and facilitative interpretations. To protect against debilitating interpretations of competitive anxiety, performers reported the use of cognitive confidence management strategies including mental rehearsal, thought stopping, and positive self-talk.Conclusions: The findings highlight self-confidence as an essential quality for elite athletes to possess in order to protect against potentially debilitating thoughts and feelings experienced in competitive situations.     

Testing the REBT-I model in athletes: Investigating the role of self-confidence between irrational beliefs and psychological distress

Evidence suggests that, in the general population, instances of poor mental health have increased over recent years and are set to continue to grow. Athletes may experience a plethora of additional stressors, such as injury, de-selection, and competitive anxiety. Prior research has suggested that irrational beliefs may maladaptively influence an athlete’s wellbeing, but little is known about the role of self-confidence in these relationships. The present study aimed to examine the role which self-confidence plays as part of the REBT-I model in athletes. Broadly speaking, it was hypothesised that primary irrational beliefs would relate negatively to self-confidence through secondary irrational beliefs. In turn, self-confidence was hypothesised to relate negatively to competitive anxiety and depressive symptoms. Additionally, irrational beliefs were hypothesised to combine with low self-confidence to relate negatively to competitive anxiety and depressive symptoms. Four hundred and ten athletes (n = 227 females, Mage = 33.91 years, SD = 14.84) completed an online questionnaire pack assessing irrational beliefs, self-confidence, cognitive and somatic competitive anxiety, and depressive symptoms. Using path analysis, the tested hypothesised model demonstrated an excellent fit to the data. Findings demonstrate some support for the REBT-I model in that primary irrational beliefs predict competitive anxiety and depressive symptoms through secondary irrational beliefs. Results extend the REBT-I model by including self-confidence as a mediating factor between depreciation beliefs and competitive anxiety and depressive symptoms. Findings suggest practitioners should be aware of the role that irrational beliefs may have in negatively influencing self-confidence and subsequent depression symptomology in athletes.     

Homophobia and physical aggression toward homosexual and heterosexual individuals

This study examined the relationship between homophobia (defined as self-reported negative affect, avoidance, and aggression toward homosexuals) and homosexual aggression. Self-identified heterosexual college men were assigned to homophobic (n = 26) and nonhomophobic (n = 26) groups on the basis of their scores on the Homophobia Scale (HS; L. W. Wright, H. E. Adams, & J. A. Bernat, 1999). Physical aggression was examined by having participants administer shocks to a fictitious opponent during a competitive reaction time (RT) task under the impression that the study was examining the relationship between sexually explicit material and RT. Participants were exposed to a male homosexual erotic videotape, their affective reactions were assessed, and they then competed in the RT task against either a heterosexual or a homosexual opponent. The homophobic group reported significantly more negative affect, anxiety, and anger-hostility after watching the homosexual erotic videotape than did the nonhomophobic group. Additionally, the homophobic group was significantly more aggressive toward the homosexual opponent, but the groups did not differ in aggression toward the heterosexual opponent.     

Achievement goals and gender effects on multidimensional anxiety in national elite sport

ObjectivesThe present paper examined the roles of achievement orientation, perception of the motivational climate, and perceived ability on performance trait anxiety in a sample of national level elite athletes. Gender differences in these relationships were also examined.DesignCross-sectional.MethodsOne hundred and ninety national elite athletes (male, n=101 and female, n=89) from individual sport completed Norwegian measures of goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability, and multidimensional performance anxiety.ResultsFemale and male national elite athletes were similar in achievement orientations and had similar perceptions of the motivational climate. Females reported higher levels of performance worry, concentration disruption and somatic anxiety than males. Orientations did not predict performance anxiety for either gender, however perceptions of a performance climate predicted performance worry for both genders, and concentration disruption for females. Perceived ability predicted less performance worry for females and males. Perceived ability did not moderate the effects of the perceived motivational climate on performance anxiety, and neither did the results meet the criteria for testing mediation.ConclusionsThe extant motivational climate has an effect on performance anxiety, and coaches would be well advised to consider this when working with national elite athletes.     

Effects of psychological interventions on competitive anxiety in sport: A meta-analysis

ObjectivesThis study reviewed the effects of psychological interventions on competitive anxiety in sport.DesignMeta-analysis and systematic review.MethodPsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, ProQuest, and Sage databases were searched for experimental studies that fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Risk of bias was assessed using the 12 criteria Cochrane Review Book Group tool. Hedge's g and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated and pooled using a random effects model employing the Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman (HKSJ) method.ResultsThe search strategy identified 37 studies which fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The meta-analysis was conducted on 34 studies after removal of outliers. The results showed an overall small to medium-sized effect for psychological interventions on competitive anxiety in athletes (g = −0.42; 95% CI, −0.58 to −0.25). Subsequent subgroup analyses showed that this finding was robust regardless of experimental design, anxiety measure, anxiety type, gender, country, sport, intervention component, intervention delivery method, and intervention duration. The results indicated that the effects might be greater for athletes of higher levels of competition as compared to those from lower levels of competition. Separate meta-analyses also suggested that there were medium to large-sized effects for cognitive anxiety (g = −0.54) and self-confidence (g = 0.55) intensity, and a small to medium-sized effect for somatic anxiety (g = −0.36) intensity.ConclusionThe findings from this review study provide a robust evidence base for the use of psychological interventions to help reduce competitive anxiety in athletes. Future studies need to investigate how psychological interventions might affect the directional interpretation of anxiety symptoms.     

The quiet passenger: Cognitions,avoidance, and onset among people with driving anxiety

BackgroundAnxiety over driving can have consequences for road safety and individual well-being. This area is under-researched in Australia, despite international research suggesting that most drivers experience some level of anxiety over driving.ObjectivesThis study aimed to contribute to the understanding of driving anxiety by 1) confirming the factor structure of two questionnaires designed to understand the concerns (Driving Cognitions Questionnaire: DCQ) and avoidance behaviours (Driving and Riding Avoidance Scale: DRAS); 2) providing evidence of anxiety manifestations in Australian drivers, and 3) understanding whether these differ according to the initial onset of this anxiety.MethodsA total of 1,600 people (77% females; age ranging from 18 to 89 [M = 27.92; ± 13.49], 75% licenced, 20% learning, 5% unlicenced) in Australia who identified as having “some” level of anxiety over driving, completed an online questionnaire regarding their anxiety.ResultsConfirmatory Factor Analyses showed the two-factor structure of the DRAS (general and traffic avoidance; and weather and riding avoidance) and the two-factor structure of the DCQ (crash-related concerns and social and panic related concerns) best fit the data. The most common anxiety onsets were crash involvement (14%), knowing someone who had been in a crash (9%) and due to criticism from others (9%). While no differences emerged between these groups on avoidance behaviour nor on crash concerns, social and panic concerns were higher for the criticism onset group.ConclusionsThe results demonstrate difference sources of anxiety and provide evidence of the importance of interactions with passengers in determining how a driver feels about the driving task.Practical implicationsAvenues for the reduction or avoidance of anxiety are proposed. These include better awareness and education for drivers regarding the importance of positive interactions and/or well as better journey management to avoid triggers of anxiety.     

Self-perception and motivational characteristics of tennis participants: The influence of age and skill

Abstract

An integrated approach to the study of psychosocial factors related to participation behavior was adopted by incorporating developmental, skill acquisition, and psychosocial variables. Specifically, the relationship of age and skill with self-perceptions and motivational characteristics of tennis participants was examined. Males and females (N = 240) ranged in age from 10 to 67 years. Professional tennis coaches verified the skill rating of each player using the National Tennis Rating Program introduced by the United States Tennis Association. Individuals completed self-report scales measuring perceived tennis competence, tennis salience, global self-worth, challenge motivational orientation, task and ego orientations, and competitive trait anxiety. Canonical correlation analyses revealed that age and skill were significantly related to psychosocial variables for both males and females. These findings suggest that an integrated research approach can extend our understanding of social-psychological variables in the physical activity setting.     

Influence of response time frame on mood assessment

Abstract

Dental anxiety and the related avoidance of dental treatment can result in severe impairment of health. We investigated the influence on avoidance behavior of phobic severity, gender, characteristics related to generalized anxiety and depression, such as dysfunctional cognitions and sensitivity of bodily symptoms, as well as personality traits of self-efficacy and locus of control. Forty-eight dental phobics were given an initial assessment and avoidance behavior was determined by the degree of observance of three subsequent dental appointments. Principal component analysis revealed separate factors for trait and phobic anxiety as well as for avoidance and dysfunctional cognitions. Women showed a higher degree of avoidance than men. Regression analysis revealed a high desire for control over dental treatment combined with a low level of perceived control as the only significant predictor variable of avoidance. The results suggest that avoidance behavior in dental phobia could be reduced by extending patients’ control over treatment conditions.     

Effects of anxiety on the execution of police arrest and self-defense skills

We investigated the effects of anxiety on the execution of police officers' arrest and self-defense skills. Police officers (n=13) performed three tasks in which they kicked, blocked, or restrained an opponent who attacked them with a rubber knife (low anxiety, LA) or a shock knife (high anxiety, HA) in a within-subject design. We analyzed performance (on a 5-point Likert scale), movement times, posture, and movement velocity and acceleration. Results revealed that performance was worse in the HA compared to the LA condition. Furthermore, analysis of full-body movement showed that under increased anxiety, police officers' performance contained characteristics of avoidance behavior, such as faster reactions (to reduce the time being exposed to the threat), leaning further backward (kick), and ducking down (block). In line with recent theoretical developments, it appears that under increased anxiety, police officers were less able to inhibit stimulus-driven processing (fear of getting hit) and enforce goal-directed processing (perform the skill as well as possible) leading to avoidance behavior and a decrease in performance.     

The relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity and competitive anxiety

ABSTRACT

The present study examined the relationship between religiosity and competitive anxiety in college athletes and whether there were differences in competitive anxiety for intrinsically religious and extrinsically religious individuals. College athletes (N?=?95) from three separate sports from the NCAA completed a questionnaire that included the Age-Universal I/E Scale, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Revised, open-ended questions on habits related to religion, and demographic items. Results revealed no significant relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity and competitive anxiety. Extrinsically religious athletes had higher somatic anxiety than intrinsically religious athletes. The majority of participants (77%) reported praying before games primarily for comfort. Athletes turn to religion to calm their nerves but it is important to understand that their approach to religion may relate to increased anxiety. This information is useful for sport practitioners and coaches as they seek to help their athletes seek an intrinsic approach to religion in sport.     

Shame-related social anxiety: Replicating a link with various social interaction measures

Abstract

In the present study, 182 young adults (131 men, 51 men: M age=20.2) completed self-report measures of shame and social avoidance/distress, anxiety, desirability, and negative social evaluation. Results supported Lewis (1985) in that shame-proneness was related to social avoidance/distress, interaction anxiety, and fear of negative social evaluation (even when controlling for social desirability). Social distress/avoidance and interaction anxiety also were significant predictors of shame-proneness. Results suggeste that attention to social anxiety may be valuable in the treatment of shameprone individuals.     

Development of exhaustion for high-performance coaches in association with workload and motivation: A person-centered approach

ObjectivesThe aim of the current study was twofold. First, to explore whether there were different trajectories of exhaustion among high-performance coaches over the course of a competitive season. Then, to investigate whether workload-related variables and motivational regulations were associated with exhaustion class membership.Methods and design299 high-performance coaches responded to an online survey at the start, middle, and end of a competitive season, assessing exhaustion, workload, work home interference (WHI), recovery, and motivational regulations. Latent class growth analyses were used to identify different trajectories of perceived exhaustion. Further, multinomial logistic regression examined class associations for workload-related variables and motivational regulations at the start and at the end of competitive season.ResultsFour different trajectories of perceived exhaustion among coaches were identified, termed respectively “High” (10%), “Increase” (15%), “Decrease” (4%) and “Low” (71%). Higher levels of workload and WHI were associated to classes with higher levels of exhaustion. Higher levels of recovery, and intrinsic and identified regulations were associated to classes with lower levels of exhaustion. Adaptive and maladaptive profiles were identified.ConclusionsDifferent trajectories of exhaustion among high-performance coaches over the course of a competitive season were found. A maladaptive profile was associated with higher perceived workload and WHI, as well as lower levels of recovery, intrinsic and identified regulations, when compared to the adaptive profile.     

Risk factors of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents with headache: A cross-sectional study

IntroductionDespite numerous studies on the association between headache and psychological difficulties in children, the results remain inconclusive.ObjectiveThis cross-sectional study was conducted to clarify the links between anxiety-depression and headache in children. We evaluated the levels of anxious and depressive symptoms and the influence of risk factors: age, sex, headache diagnosis, frequency and history to identify and treat headache sufferers most at risk.MethodData were collected from a clinical sample of 368 children aged 8 to 17 years. First, a structured interview using the International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD-II) was used to diagnose 88 patients with migraine (M), 32 with tension-type headache (TTH), and 248 with a combination syndrome (M + TTH). Second, levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms were assessed with the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (R-CMAS) and the Multiscore Depression Inventory for Children (MDI-C).ResultsAn ANOVA analysis showed that the mean scores for anxiety and depressive symptom levels were significantly higher among older patients and that only the M + TTH diagnosis was significantly associated with anxiety. Children with clinically significant levels of anxiety symptoms were more prevalent in our sample than in the general population (13% versus 5%). Anxiety and depression were not associated with child sex, headache frequency and history.ConclusionWe propose systematic screening for anxiety in children presenting with headache, particularly adolescents and patients with a combination diagnosis.     

Perceived consequences underlying approach goals and avoidance goals in relation to anxiety

Numerous studies have examined anxiety from a cognitive and affective perspective but relatively little research has studied anxiety from a motivational perspective. There are theoretical grounds (e.g., Gray, 1982) for expecting anxiety to be characterised by heightened avoidance motivation, but this motivational bias is not thought to be accompanied by diminished approach motivation. A cross-sectional, mixed model design was used to investigate individuals’ response-variations on personal approach and avoidance goal systems. A convenience sample comprising an anxious group (n = 41) and non-anxious group (n = 33) completed tasks that measured number of self-generated approach goals and avoidance goals, and number of associated positive and negative consequence steps for goals. As predicted, anxious individuals, relative to non-anxious individuals, generated more avoidance goals and more negative consequence steps in response to goal non-attainment (irrespective of goal type) but did not differ on number of approach goals or positive consequence steps in response to goal attainment (irrespective of goal type). The present findings highlight the importance of personal goal systems in understanding the nature of anxiety.