Mathematical constraints and the tulving-wiseman law: A Rejoinder

Abstract

Hintzman (1991; 1992) has claimed that the reason data points approximate the recognition failure function discovered by Tulving and Wiseman (1975) is that they are mathematically constrained to do so, and the reason that a few data points do not approximate the function, but are exceptions to it, is that these data points are less subject to mathematical constraints. He has additionally argued that such exceptions are more likely with low levels of recall and strong underlying sources of positive covariance. We provide empirical evidence relevant to this mathematical model using 301 observations from a database of all relevant experimental conditions published between 1973 and 1992 (Nilsson & Gardiner, 1993). We conclude that mathematical constraints have only a minor influence on the function, not the causal role assigned to them in Hintzman's (1992) model. By our account, both the function and exceptions to it reflect a single psychological principle, the functional effectiveness of contextual cues.     

Recognition Failure: The Influence of Semantic Cue-Target Integration- A Short Note

The observed probability of recognition given recall regularly adheres to what is predicted by the Tulving-Wiseman function. However, three types of exceptions have been observed: Cue overlap and poor cue-target integration cause an enhanced dependence, whereas good cue-target integration causes a diminished dependence between cued recall and recognition. In the present experiment, a diminished dependence between cued recall and recognition was demonstrated for good semantic cue-target integration. Conversely, poor semantic cue-target integration leads to an enhanced dependence between the two tests (see Gardiner & Tulving, 1980). The data were interpreted using the notion of cue-dependence (A rlemalm & Nilsson, 1994) and the semantic assimilation hypothesis (Ronnberg et al., 1991), which is a special case of cue-dependence.     

Recognition failure of recallable words: free and cued recall compared

The experiment reported was conducted with the purpose of studying whether the phenomenon of recognition failure of recallable words would hold for a paradigm which involves a free recall test rather than a cued recall test used in previous research. The 3×2 design used comprised two between-subjects factors: the subjects were instructed that a recognition test, a cued recall test, or a free recall test would follow the study trial, but the actual test sequence given was recognition followed by cued recall, or recognition followed by free recall. The results demonstrate that cases of recognition failure of recallable words do occur in all six conditions, but the amount of recognition failure for the recognition-free recall test sequence was less than that predicted from the Tulving & Wiseman (1975) function. In line with previous research the data for the recognition-cued recall test sequence showed the amount of recognition failure that was predicted by this function.     

Recognition failure of categorized words

Previous research has demonstrated that the phenomenon of recognition failure of recallable words does not hold for categorized word pairs (e.g.,flower-ROSE). We tested the hypothesis that such an exceptional finding is attributable to the use of homogeneous lists that create a situation in which the functional recall cues do not contain any information not already contained in the recognition cues. In three experiments in which categorized word pairs were used, but whose design ruled out the invariant informational overlap between recognition and recall cues, recognition failure was found to the extent expected by Tulving and Wiseman’s (1975) function. These results add to the evidence that the relation between recognition and cued recall in recognition-failure experiments is largely invariant over many otherwise relevant variables that affect recognition and recall.     

Exceptions to recognition failure as a function of the encoded association between cue and target

The relation of the recognition failure of recallable words to overall recognition rates is largely invariant across conditions that influence both recall and recognition separately. In two experiments, the influence of the integration of the members of A-B word pairs on this relation was investigated. In Experiment 1, it was found that deviations of observed recognition failure from predictions of the Tulving-Wiseman function (Tulving & Wiseman, 1975) were produced by shallow, nonsemantic encoding. In Experiment 2, the association of category-to-instance pairs was varied. It was found that weak associates caused larger deviations of observed recognition failure from predicted recognition failure than did strong associates. Such results suggest that a strongly encoded association between cue and target elements of A-B pairs is a necessary condition for the adherence of data to the Tulving-Wiseman function. The implications of these findings for general models of memory are discussed.     

Duaal processes in recognition and in recognition failure

It is argued that adherence of the results of experiments in the recognition failure paradigm to the function observed by Tulving and Wiseman (1975) reflects the operation of two distinct processes in recognition similar to those described by Mandler (1979, 1980). Familiarity decisions based on the target word alone can occur when target and list cue have not been integrated and result in some measure of dependence between recall and recognition. Contextual retrieval can operate in recognition when integration has occurred, and is independent of success in recall. It is further contended that deviations from the Tulving-Wiseman function arise because special instructions given to subjects produce more or less cue-target integration than is normal, and differentially affect the relative proportion of items recognized via contextual retrieval and via familiarity decisions. The first part of the paper argues that the contextual retrieval involved in recognition failure experiments takes the form of an attempted backward recall of the list cue from the target, consistent with the suggestions of Rabinowitz, Mandler, and Barsalou (1977) and claims that the results of a paper by Fisher (1979) strongly support this view.     

Sequential testing effects and the relationship between recognition and recognition failure

Tulving and Wiseman (1975) reported that there was a systematic relationship between the proportion of words recognized and the proportion of recallable words recognized. This relationship indicates a moderate positive covariation between recognition and recall across subject items, when each subject is given both types of test, recognition followed by recall. In this paper it is shown that the theoretical enterprise of trying to account for this relationship is fruitless unless the data are corrected for sequential testing effects. Evidence on the existence of these effects is reviewed, and then it is shown how they introduce a measure of dependency between recognition and recall. When the data are corrected, the theories proposed by Begg (1979) and Flexser and Tulving (1978) are shown to be poorly supported. The utility of the general enterprise of determining the relationship between recognition and recall by these means is also questioned.     

Integration and cue overlap in recognition failure of recallable words

A highly systematic relation between the conditional probability of recognition given recall and the overall recognition hit rate has been demonstrated in a wide variety of experiments. A function describing this relationship was developed by Tulving & Wiseman (1975). Exceptions to this function have, in retrospect, been interpreted in terms of (a) a low integration between cue and target items, or (b) a high cue overlap between the two tests involved: recognition and recall. The experiment reported was designed to evaluate the joint and the separate contributions from integration and cue overlap for obtaining conformity with and exception from the Tulving-Wiseman function. In line with the predictions made, the results showed that these two factors in combination can account for data that fit the function and for exceptions above the function. In relative terms, the contribution from integration was somewhat more pronounced than that from cue overlap.     

Very long‐term recall and recognition of well‐learned material

Three experiments examined very long‐term verbatim memory (from 4 months to 28 years) for lengthy, complex material. Experiments 1 and 2 found that recall (12 and 20 months after the material was last accessed) was at or near ceiling for many participants, and was significantly higher than free‐choice recognition, with recognition failure for recallable words (RF) being observed. The magnitude of the effect corresponded to that predicted by the Tulving–Wiseman ( 1975 ) function. Experiment 3 found that recall was at or near ceiling for 3 years, then declined dramatically as the retention interval increased. However, given equal amounts of context as retrieval cues, forced‐choice recognition remained relatively strong for as long as 28 years. These findings provide evidence of long‐term memory for exact details of complex discourse far in excess of previous demonstrations, and, under certain circumstances, extend the RF phenomenon to lengthy, well‐learned texts over long retention intervals. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A reconstructive-processing interpretation of the recognition failure phenomenon

The generality of the recognition failure phenomenon was the primary basis for the present research. It was hypothesized that the phenomenon obtains whenever an insufficient degree of compatibility exists between the task demands at recognition and those present during study. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated that, despite a recognition task that was incompatible to conditions of encoding, subjects could actively reconstruct aspects of the initial situation, and hence recognition failure was minimized. It was assumed that the stimulus material — categorized word pairs — facilitated this reconstructive process. Experiment 3 was designed specifically to examine further the reconstructive process as well as recognition failure. The results indicated that (a) the nature of this process could be mathematically predicted, and (b) subjects seldom failed to recognize words they recalled. The results of the present study strongly suggest an important boundary condition of the phenomenon of recognition failure. Moreover, Tulving and Wiseman's (1975) quadratic function could not predict accurately the obtained magnitude of recognition failure.     

Backward recognition failure: A case of retrieval success

Tulving and Wiseman (1975) have demonstrated that a systematic relationship exists between the recognition probability of recallable words and the overall level of recognition. However, this relationship has only been shown in the paradigms examining “forward” recognition failure, as defined by Rabinowitz, Mandler and Barsalou (1977). A reanalysis of their data shows that just such a systematic relationship exists in “backward” recognition failure experiments, and a model developed from the tenets of Fragmentation Theory is shown to predict this. A critical experiment which falsifies the dual-coding, dual-access model used by Rabinowitz et al. (1977) is also reported, thereby extending the generality of the Fragmentation Model.     

Recognition failure of recallable words in semantic memory

In an experiment in which there was no study phase, 54 subjects were tested for recognition of famous surnames and then were tested for cued recall of the same surnames. Subjects failed to recognize 53.4% of names that they subsequently recalled. Recall was significantly higher than recognition. The relationship between overall recognition rate and recognition rate of recallable words closely resembled that reported by Tulving and Wiseman (1975) for episodic memory experiments. The present data therefore extend the generality of this relationship, and of the principle that the probability of retrieval from memory depends critically on the cues provided. It is argued that the similarity between results for episodic memory experiments and the present semantic memory experiment can be more parsimoniously accommodated by tagging theory than by episodic theory.     

The production effect in paired-associate learning: Benefits for item and associative information

In five experiments, we extended the production effect—better memory for items said aloud than for items read silently—to paired-associate learning, the goal being to explore whether production enhances associative information in addition to enhancing item information. In Experiments 1 and 2, we used a semantic-relatedness task in addition to the production manipulation and found no evidence of a production effect, whether the measure was cued recall or item recognition. Experiment 3 showed that the semantic-relatedness task had overshadowed the production effect; the effect was present when the semantic-relatedness task was removed, again whether cued recall or item recognition was the measure. Experiments 4 and 5 provided further evidence that production can enhance recall for word pairs and, using an associate recognition test with intact versus rearranged pairs, indicated that production may also enhance associative information. That production boosts memory for both types of information is considered in terms of distinctive encoding.     

Collaboration in Recall: Do Pairs of People Cross-cue Each Other to Produce New Memories?

When people collaborate over their recall of a shared experience, it might be expected that they could “cross-cue” each other so as to produce new memories not available to either member of the pair on their own. In a previous series of experiments (Meudell et al., 1992), we found that pairs of people always recalled more than one person, but we failed to show that social interaction facilitated performance so as to produce such “emergent” new memories. However, a phenomenon akin to cross-cuing was employed by Tulving and Pearlstone (1966) in their classic study of the availability and accessibility of memories; accordingly, in this study, we repeated Tulving and Pearlstone's work directly in a social context. So as to assess whether new memories emerged in collaborating pairs, a sequential design was employed. People learned categorized lists of words, and then all the subjects recalled the items strictly on their own. Subjects then recalled again in pairs (collaboratively) or once more on their own. The results showed that even when the opportunity for cross-cuing was directly manipulated through the provision of categorized lists, no additional new memories emerged in the collaborating groups. Possible mechanisms for the results are considered.     

Memory for to-be-performed tasks versus memory for performed tasks

Memory for subject-performed tasks—that is, for simple actions such as lifting a pen, which subjects perform overtly—is better than memory for verbal tasks—that is, when subjects only listen to the action phrases. Here I investigated whether this effect depends on actual performance or whether it also shows up when there is only an intention to perform the task. Koriat, Ben-Zur, and Nussbaum (1990) found that the intention to perform items at test enhanced free recall more than did verbal tasks. Brooks and Gardiner (1994), however, were not able to replicate this finding. In four experiments, I attempted to reconcile this discrepancy by comparing subject-performed tasks, to-beperformed tasks, and verbal tasks under different conditions. The outcome depended on whether a within-subjects design or a between-subjects design was used. In the between-subjects design, memory for subject-performed tasks was better than memory for to-be-performed tasks, and both of these led to better recall performance than did verbal tasks. In a within-subjects design, in contrast, memory for to-be-performed tasks was no different from memory for verbal tasks. These results were independent of whether the test mode was congruent or incongruent. Thus, the discrepant findings of Koriat et al. and of Brooks and Gardiner seem to be due to the design used, pointing to encoding processes as the critical variable. The present results are interpreted to show that actual performance of actions at study provides more information than does only the intention to perform actions at test.     

主题关系对无线索回忆再认效应的影响

本研究采用RWCR范式,从无线索回忆再认的视角考察了主题关系对熟悉性的影响。结果发现,主题关系能够引发无线索回忆再认效应。具体表现为,在回忆错误项目中,被试对与学过项目有主题关系线索的熟悉性评分显著高于与学过项目无主题关系线索的熟悉性评分。这一结果表明,个体在信息提取失败时,概念形式的语义信息也能引发基于熟悉性的再认判断。     

States of awareness across multiple memory tasks: obtaining a "pure" measure of conscious recollection

Four experiments were conducted to examine the nature of recollective experience across different explicit memory tests. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that the proportion of retrieved items that were given Remember responses were equivalent across free recall, category cued recall, category plus letter cued recall, and recognition memory tests unlike the result reported by Tulving [Can. Psychol. 26 (1985) 1]. Experiments 3 and 4 revealed that Remember judgments are influenced by both conceptual and perceptual variables not only in the recognition task but in other explicit memory tasks as well. Taken together, the empirical evidence from this study demonstrates that explicit memory performance is accompanied by different states of awareness not only in recognition but also across other memory tasks including free recall.     

High-priority event instructions affect implicit and explicit memory tests

Previous work has shown that instructing subjects to give special priority to one target event in a list enhances recall for that event, but impairs recall for the events immediately preceding it (Tulving, 1969). We examined the benefit of high-priority instructions, and the retrograde amnesia for previous items, in three experiments that included two explicit tests of memory (free recall and cued recall with word-stem cues) and an implicit test (word-stem completion). Experiments 1 and 2 revealed a beneficial effect of high-priority instructions on memory for the target events in both free recall and primed word-stem completion. Retrograde amnesia for previous events was either absent (Experiment 1) or modest (Experiment 2) in free recall; however, no evidence for amnesia occurred on the implicit test. In Experiment 3, we asked if the benefit of high-priority instructions on the implicit test was due to contamination from intentional recollection, by employing the logic of the retrieval-intentionality criterion via a levels-of-processing manipulation. The results showed a beneficial effect of high-priority instructions on free recall, word-stem cued recall, and word-stem completion. Level of processing affected the two explicit tests, but not the implicit test, indicating that it induced incidental retrieval. We conclude that the benefit of high-priority instructions occurred on all three tests used in these experiments. In contrast, the phenomenon of retrograde amnesia occurred in free recall, but not in primed word-stem completion.     

The effect of aging in recollective experience: the processing speed and executive functioning hypothesis

This study was designed to investigate the effects of aging on consciousness in recognition memory, using the Remember/Know/Guess procedure (Gardiner, J. M., & Richarson-Klavehn, A. (2000). Remembering and Knowing. In E. Tulving & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Memory. Oxford University Press.). In recognition memory, older participants report fewer occasions on which recognition is accompanied by recollection of the original encoding context. Two main hypotheses were tested: the speed mediation hypothesis (Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 3, 403–428) and the executive-aging hypothesis (West, R. L. (1996). An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 272–292). A group of young and a group of older adults took a recognition test in which they classified their responses according to Gardiner, J. M., & Richarson-Klavehn, A. (2000). Remembering and Knowing. In E. Tulving & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Memory. Oxford University Press. remember-know-guess paradigm. Subsequently, participants completed processing speed and executive function tests. The results showed that among the older participants, R responses decreased, but K responses did not. Moreover, a hierarchical regression analysis supported the view that the effect of age in recollection experience is determined by frontal lobe integrity and not by diminution of processing speed.