Repetition priming and the haptic recognition of familiar and unfamiliar objects

In four experiments, we examined the haptic recognition of 3-D objects. In Experiment 1, blindfolded participants named everyday objects presented haptically in two blocks. There was significant priming of naming, but no cost of an object changing orientation between blocks. However, typical orientations of objects were recognized more quickly than nonstandard orientations. In Experiment 2, participants accurately performed an unannounced test of memory for orientation. The lack of orientation-specific priming in Experiment 1, therefore, was not because participants could not remember the orientation at which they had first felt an object. In Experiment 3, we examined haptic naming of objects that were primed either haptically or visually. Haptic priming was greater than visual priming, although significant cross-modal priming was also observed. In Experiment 4, we tested recognition memory for familiar and unfamiliar objects using an old-new recognition task. Objects were recognized best when they were presented in the same orientation in both blocks, suggesting that haptic object recognition is orientation sensitive. Photographs of the unfamiliar objects may be downloaded from www.psychonomic.org/archive.     

An examination of the effects of axis foreshortening, monocular depth cues, and visual field on object identification

Four experiments are reported on the identification of line drawings of common objects. In each experiment, performance on “unconventional” views of the objects, in which the major axis of the object was foreshortened, was compared to performance on more “conventional” views without appreciable foreshortening. In each experiment, except Experiment 2, where performance on the two views was experimentally equated, the foreshortened views were more difficult to identify than were the conventional views. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that if the foreshortened views were presented on a background with strong monocular depth cues, object identification was improved. This result suggests that part of the difficulty in identifying objects depicted from such a view stems from an improper depth interpretation of the object depictions. Experiments 3 and 4 examined visual field differences in the identification of the two types of object view. Results reported in the neuropsychological literature have shown that people with right-hemisphere damage have particular difficulty with the identification of unconventional views of objects that foreshorten major axes. Accordingly, it was expected that there would be a left visual field advantage for the foreshortened views. Neither experiment yielded any visual field effects consistent with this expectation. Possible reasons for the lack of a field effect are discussed.     

The role of colour in implicit and explicit memory performance

We present two experiments that examine the effects of colour transformation between study and test (from black and white to colour and vice versa, or from incorrectly coloured to correctly coloured and vice versa) on implicit and explicit measures of memory for diagnostically coloured natural objects (e.g., yellow banana). For naming and coloured-object decision (i.e., deciding whether an object is correctly coloured), there were shorter response times to correctly coloured-objects than to black-and-white and incorrectly coloured-objects. Repetition priming was equivalent for the different stimulus types. Colour transformation did not influence priming of picture naming, but for coloured-object decision priming was evident only for objects remaining the same from study to test. This was the case for both naming and coloured-object decision as study tasks. When participants were asked to consciously recognize objects that they had named or made coloured-object decisions to previously, whilst ignoring their colour, colour transformation reduced recognition efficiency. We discuss these results in terms of the flexibility of object representations that mediate priming and recognition.     

The role of selective attention in perceptual and affective priming

Two kinds of perceptual priming (word identification and word fragment completion), as well as preference priming (that may rely on special affective mechanisms) were examined after participants either read or named the colors of words and nonwords at study. Participants named the colors of words more slowly than the colors of nonwords, indicating that lexical processing of the words occurred at study. Nonetheless, priming on all three tests was lower after color naming than after reading, despite evidence of lexical processing during color naming shown by slower responses to words than to nonwords. These results indicate that selective attention to (rather than the mere processing of) letter string identity at study is important for subsequent repetition priming.     

Perceptual differentiation as a source of category effects in object processing: Evidence from naming and object decision

The locus of category effects in picture recognition and naming was examined in two experiments with normal subjects. Subjects carried out object decision (deciding whether the stimulus is a “real” object or not) and naming tasks with pictures of clothing, furniture, fruit, and vegetables. These categories are distinguished by containing either relatively many exemplars with similar perceptual structures (fruit and vegetables;structurally similar categories), or relatively few exemplars with similar perceptual structures (clothing and furniture;structurally dissimilar categories). In Experiment 1, responses to the stimuli from the structurally similar categories were slower than responses to stimuli from the structurally dissimilar categories, and this effect was larger in the naming than in the object decision task. Further, prior object decisions to stimuli from structurally similar categories facilitated their subsequent naming. In Experiment 2, we orthogonally manipulated object decision and naming as prime and target tasks, again with stimuli from the four categories. Category effects, with responses slower to objects from structurally similar categories, were again larger in naming than in object decision, and these category effects in naming were reduced by priming with both naming and object decision. We interpret the data to indicate that category effects in object naming can reflect visually based competition which is reduced by the preactivation of stored structural knowledge for objects.     

Dissociable Neural Subsystems Underlie Abstract and Specific Object Recognition

Participants named objects presented in the left or right visual field during a test phase, after viewing centrally presented same-exemplar objects, different-exemplar objects, and words that name objects during an initial encoding phase. In two experiments, repetition priming was exemplar-abstract yet visual when test objects were presented directly to the left cerebral hemisphere, but exemplar-specific when test objects were presented directly to the right cerebral hemisphere, contrary to predictions from single-system theories of object recognition. In two other experiments, stimulus degradation during encoding and task demands during test modulated these results in predicted ways. The results support the theory that dissociable neural subsystems operate in parallel (not in sequence) to underlie visual object recognition: An abstract-category subsystem operates more effectively than a specific-exemplar subsystem in the left hemisphere, and a specific-exemplar subsystem operates more effectively than an abstract-category subsystem in the right hemisphere.     

The negative priming effect: Inhibitory priming by ignored objects

A priming paradigm was employed to investigate the processing of an ignored object during selection of an attended object. Two issues were investigated: the level of internal representation achieved for the ignored object, and the subsequent fate of this representation. In Experiment 1 a prime display containing two superimposed objects was briefly presented. One second later a probe display was presented containing an object to be named. If the ignored object in the prime display was the same as the subsequent probe, naming latencies were impaired. This effect is termed negative priming. It suggests that internal representations of the ignored object may become associated with inhibition during selection. Thus, selection of a subsequent probe object requiring these inhibited representations is delayed. Experiment 2 replicated the negative priming effect with a shorter inter-stimulus interval. Experiment 3 examined the priming effects of both the ignored and the selected objects. The effect of both identity repetition and a categorical relationship between prime and probe stimuli were investigated. The data showed that for a stimulus selected from the prime display, naming of the same object in the probe display was facilitated. When the same stimulus was ignored in the prime display, however, naming of it in the probe display was again impaired (negative priming). That negative priming was also demonstrated with categorically related objects suggests that ignored objects achieve categorical levels of representation, and that the inhibition may be at this level.     

The visual representation of three-dimensional, rotating objects.

Depth rotations can reveal new object parts and result in poor recognition of "static" objects (Biederman & Gerhardstein, 1993). Recent studies have suggested that multiple object views can be associated through temporal contiguity and similarity (Edelman & Weinshall, 1991; Lawson, Humphreys & Watson, 1994; Wallis, 1996). Motion may also play an important role in object recognition since observers recognize novel views of objects rotating in the picture plane more readily than novel views of statically re-oriented objects (Kourtzi & Shiffrar, 1997). The series of experiments presented here investigated how different views of a depth-rotated object might be linked together even when these views do not share the same parts. The results suggest that depth rotated object views can be linked more readily with motion than with temporal sequence alone to yield priming of novel views of 3D objects that fall in between "known" views. Motion can also enhance path specific view linkage when visible object parts differ across views. Such results suggest that object representations depend on motion processes.     

Outline shape is a mediator of object recognition that is particularly important for living things

We assess the importance of outline shape in mediating the recognition of living and nonliving things. Natural objects were presented as shaded line drawings or silhouettes, and were living and nonliving things. For object decision (deciding whether an object may be encountered in real life) there were longer response times to nonliving than to living things. Importantly, this category difference was greater for silhouettes than for shaded line drawings. For naming, similar category and stimulus differences were evident, but were not as pronounced. We also examined effects of prior naming on subsequent object decision performance. Repetition priming was equivalent for nonliving and living things. However, prior presentation of silhouettes (but not shaded line drawings) reduced the longer RT to nonliving things relative to living things in silhouette object decision. We propose that outline contour benefits recognition of living things more than nonliving things: For nonliving things, there may be greater 2-D/3-D interpretational ambiguity, and/or they may possess fewer salient features.     

Spoken language planning and the initiation of articulation

Minimalist theories of spoken language planning hold that articulation starts when the first speech segment has been planned, whereas non-minimalist theories assume larger units (e.g., Levelt, Roelofs, & Meyer, 1999a). Three experiments are reported, which were designed to distinguish between these views using a new hybrid task that factorially manipulated preparation and auditory priming of spoken language production. Minimalist theories predict no effect from priming of non-initial segments when the initial segment of an utterance is already prepared; observing such a priming effect would support non-minimalist theories. In all three experiments, preparation and priming yielded main effects, and together their effects were additive. Preparation of initial segments does not eliminate priming effects for later segments. These results challenge the minimalist view. The findings are simulated by WEAVER++ (Roelofs, 1997b), which employs the phonological word as the lower limit for articulation initiation.     

ONE-SHOT VIEW INVARIANCE IN A MOVING WORLD

Abstract— How do people recognize an object in a novel orientation? Psychophysical and neurophvsiological studies have suggested that extensive practice is required before observers can recognize an object that has been rotated to a new orientation Because object orientation frequently vanes with object movement, we examined whether observers might more readily recognize a moving object in a new orientation Results from a priming study indicate that motion significantly arid readily enhances the recognition of new object orientations when those orientations fait within the path of the motion That is motion promotes view-invariant object recognition without practice     

Identity primes produce facilitation in a colour naming task

Five experiments examined associative or identity priming effects in a colour-naming task with colour-neutral words. In Experiment 1, subjects instructed to read the prime silently showed no associative priming effect but a colour-naming facilitation with identity priming. In Experiment 2, the typical associative priming interference in colour naming was demonstrated in subjects recalling the prime word, but not in subjects reading the prime silently, whereas associative primes facilitated word naming regardless of the prime response requirement. The remaining studies investigated the colour-naming facilitation observed with identity primes. Experiment 3 showed no effects on the facilitation of colour naming from varying the letter case of a silently read prime. Experiment 4 showed facilitation when subjects recalled the prime, and a target frequency effect, with faster colour-naming latencies for high- and medium- than low-frequency targets. In Experiment 5, there was no facilitation for naming the colour of target words paired with non-word primes differing in their initial letter from the target. Taken together, the results suggest that the facilitation of colour naming following identical primes reflects faster target word recognition, whereas the associative priming interference reflects an attentional effect.     

Primed picture naming within and across languages: An ERP investigation

In two experiments, while event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded, participants named picture targets that were preceded by masked word primes that corresponded either to the name of the picture target or to an unrelated picture name. Experiment 1 showed significant priming effects in the ERP waveforms, free from articulator artifact, starting as early as 200 msec post target onset. Possible loci of these priming effects were proposed within the framework of generic interactive activation models of word recognition and picture naming. These were grouped into three main components: object-specific structural representations, amodal semantic representations, and word-specific phonological and articulatory representations. Experiment 2 provided an initial test of the possible role of each of these components by comparing within-language repetition priming with priming from translation equivalents in bilingual participants. The early and widespread effects of noncognate translation primes in L1 on picture naming in L2 point to object-specific and amodal semantic representations as the principal loci of priming effects obtained with masked word primes and picture targets.     

Long-term retinotopic priming in object identification

An important result in perception research is that priming in an object naming task is invariant with translation and left-right reflection. A more sensitive object recognition paradigm was used in three experiments in order to investigate the extent to which priming of object identification is affected by changes in left-right orientation and position. In a prime phase, participants viewed consecutively presented object images. In a subsequent probe phase, participants identified familiar objects in rapid visual streams of nonobject distractors. In Experiment 1, images previously viewed in the same left-right orientation were primed more than images previously viewed in the opposite orientation (i.e., a left-right reflection). This reflection-sensitive priming was replicated in Experiment 2 using a brief (300-msec) prime exposure. In Experiment 3, when the retinal locations of prime and probe images matched, reflection-sensitive priming was also obtained, but when the retinal locations of prime and probe images differed, no reflection-sensitive priming was observed. These results suggest that a single prime exposure can produce long-term priming that is sensitive to left-right reflection, but that this priming is specific to a retinal location.     

Dissociation of rapid response learning and facilitation in perceptual and conceptual networks of person recognition

Repetition priming is a prominent example of non‐declarative memory, and it increases the accuracy and speed of responses to repeatedly processed stimuli. Major long‐hold memory theories posit that repetition priming results from facilitation within perceptual and conceptual networks for stimulus recognition and categorization. Stimuli can also be bound to particular responses, and it has recently been suggested that this rapid response learning, not network facilitation, provides a sound theory of priming of object recognition. Here, we addressed the relevance of network facilitation and rapid response learning for priming of person recognition with a view to advance general theories of priming. In four experiments, participants performed conceptual decisions like occupation or nationality judgments for famous faces. The magnitude of rapid response learning varied across experiments, and rapid response learning co‐occurred and interacted with facilitation in perceptual and conceptual networks. These findings indicate that rapid response learning and facilitation in perceptual and conceptual networks are complementary rather than competing theories of priming. Thus, future memory theories need to incorporate both rapid response learning and network facilitation as individual facets of priming.     

不同注意条件下的知觉启动及其机制

采用快速命名方法探讨不同注意条件下的知觉启动效应及其机制。实验中呈现一系列颜色词,要求被试分别完成集中和分散注意任务,然后进行词命名和再认测验。在词命名任务中．实验1包括旧词、重组颜色词和新词,而在实验2中重组颜色词改为新颜色词。结果表明,在实验1中,只有在集中注意条件下,被试对旧词的命名时间明显短于重组颜色词．即表现出知觉启动效应。而在实验2的两种注意条件下,被试对旧词的命名时间均明显短于新颜色词。这提示,在不同注意条件下的学习会影响其后的颜色知觉启动,并且与词和颜色的联结捆绑有关。     

Visual representation of malleable and rigid objects that deform as they rotate

Most studies and theories of object recognition have addressed the perception of rigid objects. Yet, physical objects may also move in a nonrigid manner. A series of priming studies examined the conditions under which observers can recognize novel views of objects moving nonrigidly. Observers were primed with 2 views of a rotating object that were linked by apparent motion or presented statically. The apparent malleability of the rotating prime object varied such that the object appeared to be either malleable or rigid. Novel deformed views of malleable objects were primed when falling within the object's motion path. Priming patterns were significantly more restricted for deformed views of rigid objects. These results suggest that moving malleable objects may be represented as continuous events, whereas rigid objects may not. That is, object representations may be "dynamically remapped" during the analysis of the object's motion.     

联想启动与知觉启动的比较研究

采用快速命名方法探讨不同加工水平对联想启动效应的影响。被试分别在深、浅加工条件下学习一系列颜色词,然后完成颜色命名和再认任务,并设立词命名任务,以比较联想启动和知觉启动的异同。结果表明,在颜色命名任务中,深、浅加工条件下均可形成对颜色词的启动效应,但浅加工条件下的再认成绩明显低于深加工,出现了联想启动和再认的分离现象。词命名表现出与颜色命名相似的结果,但它们在有意识回忆方面仍存在一定的差异,提示知觉表征系统单独并不能支持联想启动,联想启动可能是多个记忆系统共同作用的结果。     

Categorizing chairs and naming pears: Category differences in object processing as a function of task and priming

Four experiments are reported examining the locus of structural similarity effects in picture recognition and naming with normal subjects. Subjects carried out superordinate categorization and naming tasks with picture and word forms of clothing, furniture, fruit, and vegetable exemplars. The main findings were as follows: (1) Responses to pictures of fruit and vegetables (\ldstructurally similar\rd objects) were slowed relative to pictures of clothing and furniture (\ldstructurally dissimilar\rd objects). This structural similarity difference was greater for picture naming than for superordinate categorization of pictures. (2) Structural similarity effects in picture naming were reduced by repetition priming. Repetition priming effects were equivalent from picture and word naming as prime tasks. (3) However, superordinate categorization of the prime did not produce the structural similarity effects on priming found for picture naming. Furthermore, such priming effects did not arise for picture or word categorization or for reading picture names as target tasks. It is proposed that structural similarity effects on priming object processing are located in processes mapping semantic representations of pictures to name representations required to select names for objects. Visually based competition between fruit and vegetables produces competition in name selection, which is reduced by priming the mappings between semantic and name representations.