“By the time I got to London I was like a coke bottle that had been shaken up and was about to explode!” A case study of performance expectations with a retired athlete

ObjectivesThis study aimed to address voids in academic literature by exploring the consequences of performance expectations from the perspective of a retired athlete.MethodologyAn instrumental case study was used to capture the experiences of a retired female athlete who had been exposed to performance expectations throughout her career. Six conversational life story interviews were conducted with the athlete and the data were represented in two portrait vignettes.ResultsThe vignettes provide a rich and holistic account of the participant’s experiences of performance expectations. Salient points that are detailed throughout the vignettes include: i) the consequences (e.g., fear of failure, perceptions of pressure, magnification of intrapersonal expectations) of media expectations for the athlete; ii) factors that the athlete perceived to influence the consequences of media expectations (e.g., the amount of media attention received); iii) the cumulative consequences (e.g., nausea, lack of perceived control, butterflies) of interpersonal expectations from multiple perceivers (e.g., the media, coaches, the public, opponents); and iv) the presence of a fear culture associated with expectations, which had ramifications for the athlete’s well-being and their ability to talk about their experiences.ConclusionsThis article offers a novel insight to the multi-modal consequences of performance expectations for an athlete, the dominant role that the media played in shaping the athlete’s experiences, and the athlete’s inability to disclose her experiences of expectations. Stakeholders are encouraged to develop their own meanings, interpretations, and evaluations of the vignettes, and apply their interpretations to policy and practice.     

A current approach to anticipation in sport / Un enfoque actual de la anticipación en el deporte

The classical cognitive concept of anticipation and timing (for example, reaction time) somewhat limits the study of sports actions under spatio-temporal pressure. The presence, duration and evolution of the information of the opponents, spatio-temporal pressure, the evolution of the athlete’s response movements or the degree of representativeness are some of the issues facilitating research into an anticipation that is better adjusted to the specific circumstances of interception tasks. This article proposes that temporalization of response actions is based on the balance between the spatio-temporal demands of the task, the athlete’s action capabilities and the evolution of the reliability of the available variables. In order to obtain good performance in these actions under pressure, individual perceptual differences and possible interactions with other information sources must also be considered.     

Congruence of efficacy beliefs on the coach-athlete relationship and athlete anxiety: Athlete self-efficacy and coach estimation of athlete self-efficacy

This study’s purpose was to assess the extent to which congruence of athlete self-efficacy and Coach Estimation of Athlete Self-Efficacy (CEASE) is associated with coach-athlete relationship quality and athlete anxiety. Data were obtained from 71 British coach-athlete dyads from individual sports regarding athlete self-efficacy, CEASE, coach-athlete relationship quality, and athlete anxiety. Polynomial regression analyses were conducted to assess congruence, with significant interactions depicted in surface response graphs. Athlete self-efficacy was significant in predicting athlete perceptions of relationship quality and CEASE was significant in predicting coach perceptions of relationship quality, but neither directly predicted the other person’s relationship perceptions. Congruence (of athlete self-efficacy and CEASE) was significant in predicting athlete, but not coach, perceptions of relationship quality. Athlete anxiety was not significantly predicted. Overall, results from the study suggest that the coach-athlete relationship is enhanced when coaches and athletes have congruent perceptions of efficacy, with more cooperative and effective interactions resulting from congruence at high and low efficacy.     

Modeling influence of change readiness on knowledge acquisition process: A case study

Change readiness (CR) has important impact on the success of knowledge acquisition (KA). So it is necessary for managers to know how KA is shaped by CR elements. Review of the extant literature shows a paucity in this regard specially regarding intra-organizational rather than inter-organizational level. Therefore, to bridge this gap, this study aims to present a fuzzy cognitive map (FCM) model in which interactions among CR elements for KA are identified. To do so, first, elements for measuring CR for KA were extracted from the relevant literature. Then, the identified elements were screened through distributing the first designed questionnaire among the select sample of survey organization. Then, the second questionnaire was used to measure the select elements and find the relation between them, using FCM and Mental Modeler Software. To improve CR for KA, some scenarios are suggested by the managers and the impact of each scenario on the whole CR elements is identified using sensitive analysis of the FCM model. After comparing the scenarios, it is concluded improving more elements in one scenario does not necessarily result in better impact on the whole CR for KA. This is due to the interaction among the elements which sometimes could be negative. The proposed model might help managers of the survey organization evaluate their CR improvement plans for KA before taking any actions. In addition, this study can give an idea to other organizations and industries to apply this approach according to their own relevant criteria. This study is among the first in its kind which presents a model using FCM method in which the interactions among the CR elements influencing KA are considered.     

Does driving experience in video games count? Hazard anticipation and visual exploration of male gamers as function of driving experience

Risk perception and distribution of visual attention while driving are crucial elements for accident prevention and new-driver improvement. This study investigates how racing videogames could shape the visual exploration of virtual and real road in male pre-drivers. The visual performance of players of racing video games with and without driver’s license was tested in virtual vs. real scenarios. Attention to specific elements of different types of road interactions was monitored using an eye-tracking system. Results showed that habitual use of racing video games was not found to foster a positive effect on users’ distribution of visual attention, supporting visual patterns typical of novice drivers. Gamers without driving experience replicated the same patterns in a real road scenario, ignoring road signs and potential areas of interactions with other drivers, while experienced drivers gamers explored video games roads like real roads. The fact that the gamers’ driving performance was not comparable to drivers in the virtual scenario suggests that there are other variables in the gameplay that create a less complex traffic scene, still the visual complexity of different real road interactions is kept in video game interactions, opening new perspectives towards gamers’ visual exploration of the road.     

Psychometric Modeling of response speed and accuracy with mixed and conditional regression

Human performance in cognitive testing and experimental psychology is expressed in terms of response speed and accuracy. Data analysis is often limited to either speed or accuracy, and/or to crude summary measures like mean response time (RT) or the percentage correct responses. This paper proposes the use of mixed regression for the psychometric modeling of response speed and accuracy in testing and experiments. Mixed logistic regression of response accuracy extends logistic item response theory modeling to multidimensional models with covariates and interactions. Mixed linear regression of response time extends mixed ANOVA to unbalanced designs with covariates and heterogeneity of variance. Related to mixed regression is conditional regression, which requires no normality assumption, but is limited to unidimensional models. Mixed and conditional methods are both applied to an experimental study of mental rotation. Univariate and bivariate analyzes show how within-subject correlation between response and RT can be distinguished from between-subject correlation, and how latent traits can be detected, given careful item design or content analysis. It is concluded that both response and RT must be recorded in cognitive testing, and that mixed regression is a versatile method for analyzing test data.I am grateful to Rogier Donders for putting his data at my disposal.     

混合IRT潜在模型及其应用轨迹

项目反应理论是测量被试潜在特质的现代测量理论, 潜在类别分析是基于模型的潜在特质分类技术。混合项目反应理论将项目反应理论与潜在类别分析相结合, 能够同时对被试分类并量化其潜在特质。在阐述混合项目反应理论概念、原理的基础上, 介绍了MRM、mNRM和mPCM等几种常见混合模型及其参数估计方法, 并从心理与行为特征分类、项目功能差异检测、测验效度评价等方面评述了其在心理测验中的应用发展轨迹。     

Psychological effects of thought acceleration

Six experiments found that manipulations that increase thought speed also yield positive affect. These experiments varied in both the methods used for accelerating thought (i.e., instructions to brainstorm freely, exposure to multiple ideas, encouragement to plagiarize others' ideas, performance of easy cognitive tasks, narration of a silent video in fast-forward, and experimentally controlled reading speed) and the contents of the thoughts that were induced (from thoughts about money-making schemes to thoughts of five-letter words). The results suggested that effects of thought speed on mood are partially rooted in the subjective experience of thought speed. The results also suggested that these effects can be attributed to the joy-enhancing effects of fast thinking (rather than only to the joy-killing effects of slow thinking). This work is inspired by observations of a link between "racing thoughts" and euphoria in cases of clinical mania, and potential implications of that observed link are discussed.     

(De)Constructing Paula Radcliffe: Exploring media representations of elite running,pregnancy and motherhood through cultural sport psychology

ObjectivesLittle is known about elite athletes who are mothers within the context of sociocultural expectations concerning motherhood and sport. The aim of this study was to extend such understanding by examining how the media manages and constructs one elite athlete's (Paula Radcliffe) identities within the context of motherhood and sport.DesignA qualitative approach grounded in cultural sport psychology was used to explore motherhood and athletic identity as socio-cultural creations shaped by cultural narratives (i.e., media). The psychological and behavioural implications were of interest.MethodA textual analysis (see McKee, 2003) of two issues of Runner's World magazine (March 2008, October, 2010) surrounding elite British marathon runner Paula Radcliffe's pregnancies was conducted. Visual data analysis of 37 images (see Griffin, 2010) further contextualized textual meaning(s).ResultsRadcliffe's identities were constructed within a higher order narrative: pregnancy and motherhood as redemption. This narrative had fluid meanings depending on how it framed two contrasting identities: 1. athlete and mother as one and 2. primarily a mother; athlete as secondary. An athlete and mother as one identity reinforced an elite athlete identity and high performance narrative. A primarily mother, athlete as secondary identity was linked to athletic accomplishments being downplayed and/or sacrificed in favour of motherhood.ConclusionsThis study opens a new window of cultural understanding and possibility for research and application concerning motherhood and athletic identities. These findings add to the cultural sport psychology and qualitative literature exploring elite mothering athletes.     

Performance breakdown effects dissociate from error detection effects in typing

Mistakes in skilled performance are often observed to be slower than correct actions. This error slowing has been associated with cognitive control processes involved in performance monitoring and error detection. A limited literature on skilled actions, however, suggests that preerror actions may also be slower than accurate actions. This contrasts with findings from unskilled, discrete trial tasks, where preerror performance is usually faster than accurate performance. We tested 3 predictions about error-related behavioural changes in continuous typing performance. We asked participants to type 100 sentences without visual feedback. We found that (a) performance before errors was no different in speed than that before correct key-presses, (b) error and posterror key-presses were slower than matched correct key-presses, and (c) errors were preceded by greater variability in speed than were matched correct key-presses. Our results suggest that errors are preceded by a behavioural signature, which may indicate breakdown of fluid cognition, and that the effects of error detection on performance (error and posterror slowing) can be dissociated from breakdown effects (preerror increase in variability).     

Correlates of Orgasm Adequacy in a Group of 556 Wives

In the present study, the authors examined 53 female athletes drawn from 4 different sports and 55 female nonathletes. The athletes were divided into 2 groups: speed focused and technique focused. The nonathlete control group consisted of college women who had not participated in any varsity sports at the university level. Participants were measured on scales of body dissatisfaction, preoccupation with weight, and self-perceptions of body type and weight. Analyses revealed that (a) speed-focused athletes and technique-focused athletes did not differ significantly in their concerns about weight and body image, and (b) nonathletes expressed more dissatisfaction with their bodies than both of the athlete groups. Results are discussed with regard to associations between female sports participation and body image.     

The relationship between types of female athletic participation and female body type

In the present study, the authors examined 53 female athletes drawn from 4 different sports and 55 female nonathletes. The athletes were divided into 2 groups: speed focused and technique focused. The nonathlete control group consisted of college women who had not participated in any varsity sports at the university level. Participants were measured on scales of body dissatisfaction, preoccupation with weight, and self-perceptions of body type and weight. Analyses revealed that (a) speed-focused athletes and technique-focused athletes did not differ significantly in their concerns about weight and body image, and (b) nonathletes expressed more dissatisfaction with their bodies than both of the athlete groups. Results are discussed with regard to associations between female sports participation and body image.     

Accounting for individual differences in speed in the discretized signed residual time model

With advances in computerized tests, it has become commonplace to register not just the accuracy of the responses provided to the items, but also the response time. The idea that for each response both response accuracy and response time are indicative of ability has explicitly been incorporated in the signed residual time (SRT) model (Maris & van der Maas, 2012, Psychometrika, 77, 615–633), which assumes that fast correct responses are indicative of a higher level of ability than slow correct responses. While the SRT model allows one to gain more information about ability than is possible based on considering only response accuracy, measurement may be confounded if persons show differences in their response speed that cannot be explained by ability, for example due to differences in response caution. In this paper we propose an adapted version of the SRT model that makes it possible to model person differences in overall speed, while maintaining the idea of the SRT model that the speed at which individual responses are given may be indicative of ability. We propose a two-dimensional SRT model that considers dichotomized response time, which allows one to model differences between fast and slow responses. The model includes both an ability and a speed parameter, and allows one to correct the estimates of ability for possible differences in overall speed. The performance of the model is evaluated through simulation, and the relevance of including the speed parameter is studied in the context of an empirical example from formative educational assessment.     

Partial information or facilitation? Different interpretations of results from speed-accuracy decomposition.

The speed-accuracy decomposition technique was developed by Meyer, Irwin, Osman, and Kounios (1988) to examine the time course of information processing. The technique allows for the estimation of the accuracy of guesses that are induced by the presentation of a response signal on a proportion of trials. Estimated guessing accuracy has been found to be above chance and to increase as time of guessing increases, suggesting that guesses are based on partial information that has accumulated prior to a response decision (sophisticated guesses). In this paper, a different interpretation of these data is presented. Results suggest that response signals may enhance the speed of regular processes, thereby violating the temporal-independence assumption that underlies the decomposition technique. As shown by Monte Carlo simulations, such facilitating effects of response signals can explain the results from the decomposition technique at least in part and possibly in full, even when guesses are actually at chance accuracy (pure guesses). The pure-guess model was supported by the results from an experiment designed to test between the alternative interpretations. These results point to the need for great caution in the attempt to infer the time course of information processing from guessing accuracies as estimated by the speed-accuracy decomposition technique.     

Partial information or facilitation? Different interpretations of results from speed-accuracy decomposition

The speed-accuracy decomposition technique was developed by Meyer, Irwin, Osman, and Kounios (1988) to examine the time course of information processing. The technique allows for the estimation of the accuracy of guesses that are induced by the presentation of a response signal on a proportion of trials. Estimated guessing accuracy has been found to be above chance and to increase as time of guessing increases, suggesting that guesses are based on partial information that has accumulated prior to a response decision (sophisticated guesses). In this paper, a different interpretation of these data is presented. Results suggest that response signals may enhance the speed of regular processes, thereby violating the temporal-independence assumption that underlies the decomposition technique. As shown by Monte Carlo simulations, such facilitating effects of response signals can explain the results from the decomposition technique at least in part and possibly in full, even when guesses are actually at chance accuracy (pure guesses). The pure-guess model was supported by the results from an experiment designed to test between the alternative interpretations. These results point to the need for great caution in the attempt to infer the time course of information processing from guessing accuracies as estimated by the speed-accuracy decomposition technique.     

A quantitative evaluation of the AVITEWRITE model of handwriting learning

Much sensory-motor behavior develops through imitation, as during the learning of handwriting by children. Such complex sequential acts are broken down into distinct motor control synergies, or muscle groups, whose activities overlap in time to generate continuous, curved movements that obey an inverse relation between curvature and speed. The adaptive vector integration to endpoint handwriting (AVITEWRITE) model of Grossberg and Paine (2000) [A neural model of corticocerebellar interactions during attentive imitation and predictive learning of sequential handwriting movements. Neural Networks, 13, 999-1046] addressed how such complex movements may be learned through attentive imitation. The model suggested how parietal and motor cortical mechanisms, such as difference vector encoding, interact with adaptively-timed, predictive cerebellar learning during movement imitation and predictive performance. Key psychophysical and neural data about learning to make curved movements were simulated, including a decrease in writing time as learning progresses; generation of unimodal, bell-shaped velocity profiles for each movement synergy; size scaling with isochrony, and speed scaling with preservation of the letter shape and the shapes of the velocity profiles; an inverse relation between curvature and tangential velocity; and a two-thirds power law relation between angular velocity and curvature. However, the model learned from letter trajectories of only one subject, and only qualitative kinematic comparisons were made with previously published human data. The present work describes a quantitative test of AVITEWRITE through direct comparison of a corpus of human handwriting data with the model's performance when it learns by tracing the human trajectories. The results show that model performance was variable across the subjects, with an average correlation between the model and human data of 0.89+/-0.10. The present data from simulations using the AVITEWRITE model highlight some of its strengths while focusing attention on areas, such as novel shape learning in children, where all models of handwriting and the learning of other complex sensory-motor skills would benefit from further research.     

Simulations of dolphin kick swimming using smoothed particle hydrodynamics

In competitive human swimming the submerged dolphin kick stroke (underwater undulatory swimming) is utilized after dives and turns. The optimal dolphin kick has a balance between minimizing drag and maximizing thrust while also minimizing the physical exertion required of the swimmer. In this study laser scans of athletes are used to provide realistic swimmer geometries in a single anatomical pose. These are rigged and animated to closely match side-on video footage. Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) fluid simulations are performed to evaluate variants of this swimming stroke technique. This computational approach provides full temporal and spatial information about the flow moving around the deforming swimmer model. The effects of changes in ankle flexibility and stroke frequency are investigated through a parametric study. The results suggest that the net streamwise force on the swimmer is relatively insensitive to ankle flexibility but is strongly dependent on kick frequency.     

Effector Organization and “Gradation” of Effort

It is proposed that an aspect of the effector organization process is the gradation of the response. Gradation was investigated in a hand cranking task by using strain-gauge and electromyographic recording techniques. Criteria of gradation were related to (a) the impulsive force at a particular point in the cycle of movement, (b) an index of the work done per unit of time, (c) the degree of muscle activity in each of the 6 muscles analyzed, and (d) an index of muscle activity based on the pen deflection of an EMG record. Further, two criteria of the organization of the force were employed — the force range and the consistency of the force range. None of the criteria of gradation was closely related to speed of performance, but the organizational criteria showed a trend toward being related to speed. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Specific effect of a cognitive-motor dual-task training on sport performance and brain processing associated with decision-making in semi-elite basketball players

ObjectivesIn this study, we aimed at evaluating the effects of cognitive-motor dual-task training (CMDT) on sport-specific athletic performance and cognitive functions of semi-elite basketball players. Further, we investigated the CMDT effects on reactive brain processing by employing event-related potential (ERP) analysis. Design: A randomized controlled trial was conducted including 52 young semi-elite basketball players (28 females mean age 16.3 ± 1.1 years) who were randomly assigned into an experimental (Exp) group executing the CMDT and a control (Con) group performing standard motor training. Method: Athletes’ sport-specific performance was evaluated with dribbling tests before and after a five-week training. Cognitive performance was assessed by measuring speed and accuracy in a discrimination response task. Brain activity associated with sensory processing, selective attention, and decision-making was measured through the P1, N1, and P3 components. The CMDT consisted of simultaneous execution of dribbling exercises and cognitive tasks which were realized using interactive devices located around the athlete on the basket court. Data were submitted to a mixed analysis of variance. Results: Both groups showed some improvements from pre-to post-tests, but the Exp group improved basket-specific performance by 13% more than the Con group; in addition, the cognitive performance also improved more in the Exp group (25.8% in accuracy and 5.4% response speed). According to the EEG results, training did not affect sensory processing and attentional processing which were equally increased after both kinds of training; however, decision-making processes were specifically affected by the experimental training. Conclusions: This study confirmed the effectiveness of the proposed CMDT protocol on both sport-specific and cognitive performance of basketball players and showed that the neural basis of these benefits may be mediated by more intense decisional processing allowing faster connection between sensory encoding and response execution.     

Separating response‐execution bias from decision bias: Arguments for an additional parameter in Ratcliff's diffusion model

Diffusion model data analysis permits the disentangling of different processes underlying the effects of experimental manipulations. Estimates can be provided for the speed of information accumulation, for the amount of information used to draw conclusions, and for a decision bias. One parameter describes the duration of non‐decisional processes including the duration of motor‐response execution. In the default diffusion model, it is implicitly assumed that both responses are executed with the same speed. In some applications of the diffusion model, this assumption will be violated. This will lead to biased parameter estimates. Consequently, we suggest accounting explicitly for differences in the speed of response execution for both responses. Results from a simulation study illustrate that parameter estimates from the default model are biased if the speed of response execution differs between responses. A second simulation study shows that large trial numbers (N>1,000) are needed to detect whether differences in response‐execution times are based on different execution times.