Free and Cheap Riding in Strict, Conservative Churches

Iannaccone (1994) uses rational choice theory to argue that strict rules (e.g., no smoking or drinking) raise average commitment levels in conservative churches because strictness discourages free riding. Tests of this assertion have been hampered, in part, by uncertainties concerning how free riding should be measured. We introduce a new, indirect measure of free (and cheap) riding, the level of positive skewness of a congregation's money contributions—that is, the extent to which a few members give much more than the mean amount while the majority gives much less. Using a study of giving in five denominations, we find that strict, conservative congregations have both higher mean giving and less skewness in the pattern of their giving. The higher mean-contribution levels at strict, conservative congregations are not simply due to each member giving more or a few members giving a lot more. Instead, as Iannaccone's model predicts, some combination of strict rules and/or conservative theology appears to systematically limit the proportion of free- and cheap-riding members giving far less than the mean and thus increase the proportion giving at or above the mean.     

Religious Market Share and Intensity of Church Involvement in Five Denominations

Proponents of the supply side approach to religion theorize that religious market share—the proportion of people in a geographical area who belong to a given denomination—is inversely related to religious commitment in that denomination. They argue that a small market share motivates religious leaders to compete harder in the religious market place, increasing the participation of members. Another perspective, often associated with secularization theory, make the opposite prediction. It argues that people find it difficult to remain religiously committed in social environments where they are numerical minoritiesbecause other people do not reinforce their beliefs and practices. We use data from a large study of financial giving to analyze the relationship between market share and commitment for five denominations in the United States. We find that market share has a negative effect on church financial giving within all five denominations and a weaker negative effect on attendance in threeof the denominations. We explore whether these effects are the spurious byproducts of pro-religious cultural norms associated with either the South or the presence of conservative Protestants in local areas. In models pooling all denominations, the negative effect of market share on financial giving and attendance cannot be explained away by either of these factors. However, the effect on attendance can be accounted for by congregational size.     

Whether to Adopt Statements on Homosexuality in Two Denominations: A Research Note

Some of the most contentious issues in American religion today concern homosexuality. In 1998, we asked 2,300 clergy in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Episcopal Church whether their denomination should adopt official statements on homosexuality. A year later, we asked the same question of 1,600 church members in 60 of those clergy's congregations. In this research note, we analyze the attitudes of clergy and church members about beginning the process to compose formal denominational statements on homosexuality. We find great differences between the two denominations, reflecting established conflict in the Episcopal Church and a lack thereof in the ELCA. The attitudes of both clergy and church members, shaped by denominational context, reflect their general attitudes toward gay rights and the public involvement of the denomination. Clergy exhibit particular concern about how a denominational statement might affect their own congregation, and church members take significant cues from their clergy.     

Do Christian Denominations Exhibit Higher Rates of Alcohol Consumption? A Study of Korean American Women in California

Although Korean American women show high levels of involvement in religious practices and high prevalence of alcohol consumption, no studies have assessed the association between religious denomination and alcohol intake among this group of women. This cross-sectional study examined the associations of religious denomination and religious commitment to alcohol consumption among Korean American women in California. Polychotomous regression models were used to provide estimates of the associations between religious denomination and religious commitment to alcohol consumption. Catholic Korean American women (OR 5.61 P < 0.01) and Independent Christian women (OR 4.87 P < 0.01) showed stronger associations to heavy alcohol consumption when compared to Conservative Christian Korean American women. Path analysis suggested that specific denominations had both direct and indirect effects on the outcome of interest, and that religious commitment and drinking models served as moderators for this phenomenon.     

The Creation of a Distinct Subcultural Identity and Denominational Growth

Scholars have long been concerned with the causes of differential growth in the membership of religious traditions and denominations. In this article I use data from three surveys, matched with census and membership data from U.S. states, to test Smith's recent theory of denominational growth and decline. I find that in the one denomination under study, the Presbyterian Church (USA), the states where membership has declined the least are those states where the members of the denomination are both the most theologically orthodox and have the strongest identity as theological liberals. Although seemingly paradoxical, it fits Smith's theory well. Liberal Protestants do not thrive where they are the most conservative, but rather where they have created a unique identity—a unique social niche—somewhere between evangelicalism and secularism.     

Sacrifice and Stigma: Managing Religious Risk

This article develops a theoretical explanation for the incidence of sacrifice and stigma or “strictness” that—unlike the extant literature—explicitly incorporates a supernatural motive for religiosity. This innovation permits a precise delineation of religious risks and leads to the critical insight that “strictness” is an instrument of mutually beneficial risk mitigation. The theory yields alternative explanations for all empirical regularities on the incidence of strictness that the club model explains, including the seemingly anomalous labor market behavior of Ultra‐Orthodox Jews in Israel, the high lethality of extremist religious sects, and the positive correlation between strictness and social service provision. Among the attributes that distinguish the risk mitigation approach from the club model are: its explanation of observed income dispersion within strictness categories that is substantially greater than that implied by the club model; its prediction that the positive correlation between strictness and exclusivity is a causal relationship in which exclusivity is causally prior to strictness; and its demonstration that variation in the risk mitigation benefits members derive from strictness is at least as important as variation in the opportunity costs of strictness in explaining variation in the levels of strictness employed across denominations and sects.     

The Zeal of the Convert Revisited

Social scientists have long been interested in the effects of conversion on religiosity. Drawing on data from the 2014 Pew Religious Landscape Survey, I revisit the zeal of the convert thesis by comparing the religiosity of both converts and cradle members within the main American religious traditions. My findings reveal that converts are not more zealous than lifelong members, in fact, converts tend to have lower levels of religious commitment. Switchers raised in strict denominations do exhibit greater zeal than cradle members. The discussion argues that people create new, hybrid forms of religious engagement based on elements from both their current and childhood religious identities. Conversion is less a sudden rupture involving dramatic, wholesale change; rather, it is a process in which some prior religious norms are retained alongside new ones.     

Trust in God and Trust in Man: The Ambivalent Role of Religion in Shaping Dimensions of Social Trust

We use data from the National Election Study (2000) to analyze relationships among measures of religious orientation and commitment and three aspects of social trust. Results from OLS and ordered logistic regression models indicate that individuals affiliated with specific denominations (e.g., Pentecostal and other Christian) tend to display significantly lower levels of certain types of social trust than members of mainline Protestant denominations, once a variety of controls have been applied. This pattern is reversed, however, among respondents who attend church more frequently and who report that religion provides them substantial guidance in their daily lives.     

Recovering the Lost: Remeasuring U.S. Religious Affiliation

Over the past several decades, survey research has found a growing percentage of Americans claiming no religious affiliation. In this article, we introduce a modified religious traditions (RELTRAD) typology to measure religious affiliation. The approach benefits from a more detailed data collection and coding scheme of religious tradition based upon religious family, denomination, and congregation. Using new national survey data from the Baylor Religion Survey, we find: (1) improvement to survey design and measurement makes it possible to accurately locate more Americans within established religious traditions; (2) Americans remain connected to congregations, but less so to denominations or more generic religious identity labels; and (3) religious adherents are considerably more evangelical than prior studies have found. Finally, we consider how affiliation as a form of religious belonging relates to religious beliefs and behaviors.     

Strictness and Congregational Growth in Middletown

The relative effectiveness of strictness theory and modernization theory in explaining congregational growth is tested using a random sample of white, Protestant churches in Middletown (N = 98). Although the former theory predicts that growth is positively related to an authoritative structure and to enforcing rules of ascetic strictness, modernization theory predicts the opposite pattern. For our sample, authoritative leadership seemed not to produce congregational growth. The main finding was that strict rules positively related to growth among working-class congregations, but negatively related to growth among middle-class congregations.     

Generating Trust in Congregations: Engagement,Exchange, and Social Networks

The relationship between religion and trust is complex and there is little consensus on why, in general, religious people appear to be more trusting than their unaffiliated peers. Most research on religion and trust focuses on differences between traditions and denominations, which offers rather limited insight into the genesis of trust for religious persons. In this study, we draw on recent theoretical developments in social psychology to explore how specific patterns of social interactions within congregations enhance within‐congregation trust among members to the benefit of both churches and individuals. Using survey data from the Portraits of American Life Study, we find that the positive relationship between religiosity and trust is driven less by religious beliefs or practices and more by particular characteristics of micro‐level processes that occur in churches (e.g., closeness of relationships to religious leaders, density of congregational ties, and both giving and receiving aid from other congregation members). In light of research on social learning and trust, we also discuss the potential benefits of this particularized trust for individuals’ levels of generalized trust.     

Growth and Decline of Evangelicals,Fundamentalists, Pentecostals,and Charismatics in Switzerland 1970–2013

This article describes and explains patterns of growth and decline undergone by evangelical, fundamentalist, and Pentecostal/Charismatic (EFPC) denominations in Switzerland from 1970 to 2013. We combine data from different censuses, membership registers of denominations, and a National Congregation Study (NCS) to establish and explain patterns of growth and decline. Our main results are that (1) the overall EFPC milieu has grown since the 1970s; (2) the growth is predominantly caused by a rather strong increase in membership of Pentecostal/Charismatic denominations. In contrast, evangelical denominations are overall rather stable, while fundamentalists seem to be in decline; (3) EFPC growth is not related to deprivation orientation, strictness, or socialization efforts, but to recruitment focus and spontaneity of ritual. We discuss these findings in the light of different theories.     

Influence of Maternal Denomination, God Concepts, and Child-Rearing Practices on Young Children's God Concepts

This study tests a model of individual differences in God concepts among kindergarteners, based on social learning and projection theory. Relations among maternal education, religious denomination, God concepts, child-rearing practices, and young children's God concepts were examined. Subjects were 363 Dutch preschoolers (mean age = 66 months) and 271 of their mothers belonging to three religious denominations (open Christian, orthodox Christian, and nonaffiliated). Child-rearing practices as well as God concepts were measured using questionnaires. God concepts were operationalized as ideas about potential characteristics of God. The model was partly supported. Maternal orthodox Christian denomination, God concepts, and child-rearing practices all had effects on children's "potent God" concept, confirming all parts of the model. Differences in children's "punishing God" concept were explained by strict child-rearing practices, providing evidence for projection theory only. Children's "loving and caring God" concepts were predicted by mothers'"loving God" concept, lending support for social learning theory .     

社会公平感对不同阶层目标达成的影响及其过程

基于目标追求理论和社会阶层心理学的相关理论, 本文通过3个研究, 逐步深入地考察了社会公平感对不同阶层个体目标达成的影响作用及其过程。研究1为相关研究, 考察了高低阶层成人被试的教育领域社会公平感与为孩子进行教育投入的目标承诺及目标达成之间的关系; 研究2为准实验研究, 通过操纵公平或不公平教育情境启动公平感, 考察其对高低阶层中学生的学习目标承诺与目标达成的影响; 研究3为实验研究, 通过实验操纵社会公平感和社会阶层, 考察社会公平感对高低阶层大学生的实验任务目标承诺和目标达成的影响。研究发现, 社会公平感通过正向影响低阶层者的目标承诺, 进而正向影响其目标达成; 而对于高阶层者来说, 变量之间这些关系则不显著。这表明：相对于高阶层来说, 低阶层者的目标追求易受社会公平感的影响; 低阶层者的社会公平感水平越高, 其追求目标的动机水平就越高, 进而越有利于目标达成。     

Low‐Involvement Learning: Repetition and Coherence in Familiarity and Belief

Over thirty years ago Krugman (1965) claimed that learning of advertising messages was much more like an Ebbinghaus nonsense syllable memory task than an exercise in rhetoric. If anything, he seems even more right today in a media environment that continues to become more cluttered. In this article, we investigate the role that memory plays in the development of beliefs within this context and focus on the formation of beliefs that develop with little intention or opportunity to learn. Following on previous work, we investigate the effect of repetition‐induced increases in belief for advertising claims that are hierarchically related: a superordinate general benefit claim (e.g., security of a lock) and multiple subordinate feature claims (e.g., pick resistant and professional installation required). We find that beliefs in feature claims increase monotonically with number of exposures, although at a diminishing marginal rate. We find no evidence of horizontal spillover of repetition‐induced increases in belief from one subordinate feature claim to another. However, we find a substantial amount of vertical spillover of repetition‐induced increases in belief from individual subordinate feature claims to the superordinate general benefit. A dual mediation analysis suggests that the vertical spillover comes from both an increase in familiarity of the general benefit and greater belief in the set of subordinate feature claims.     

Differential efficacy of standard inpatient treatment between Mormon and non-Mormon patients

Despite differences in doctrine and belief structure, much of current research and most therapeutic practice continue to treat the thirty six recognised denominations of Christianity identically. Analysis of 298 inpatients (37.6% Mormon) at a large state psychiatric hospital found differential efficacy based on denomination (Mormon versus Non-Mormon) on seven of the 24 items of the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale. Differential efficacy of treatment was also found based on gender for four of the 24 items with those differences possibly stemming from gender differences in openness to therapy. Finally, two denominations by gender interactions were noted as well. Taken together, the results of the current study indicate that specific denomination membership may have a more significant impact on the outcome of therapy than current practice implies. Additionally, the current study documents some of the unique challenges and issues in treating Mormon patients.     

Investigating the Sect-Church-Sect Cycle: Cohort-Specific Attendance Differences Across African-American Denominations

Varying religious commitment across generations plays a key role in explaining transitions from sect to church, and the formation of sectarian movements. Within a sect, elite members of younger generations are seen to spur internal secularization that transforms otherworldly sects into world-affirming churches. In this paper I examine how cohort differences in religious commitment across denominations evidence the sect-church transformation process, and point to sources of sect formation among African-Americans. Using data from the 1972–1998 General Social Surveys, I analyze denomination-specific cohort differences in religious participation among African-Americans. Cohort-specific shifts in religious participation across denominations demonstrate the secularization of African-American mainline Methodist and Baptist groups, the continued vitality of sectarian denominations, and the nascent ascendance of "nondenominational" churches on the fringes of the religious marketplace.     

Employee commitment and support for an organizational change: Test of the three‐component model in two cultures

Although commitment is commonly identified as an essential element for the effective implementation of organizational change, little empirical evidence exists to support this claim. We conducted two studies to replicate and extend findings pertaining to Herscovitch and Meyer's three‐component model of commitment to an organizational change. In the first study, we examined relations within and across time between employees' commitment (affective, normative and continuance) and level of support for a strategic initiative undertaken by a Canadian utility company in response to deregulation. In the second study, we tested the model in a sample of managers in an Indian organization undergoing major restructuring. In both studies we found considerable support for the relations between commitment and support predicted by the model. However, we also found evidence for potential culture differences. Implications for theory, research and change management practice are discussed.     

Latvian Baptist Traditions in Transition

I intend not so much to write about Latvian Baptist traditions in the past as to reflect on the challenges Baptists in Latvia face as part of a society which is in the process of being integrated into Western Europe. It is important to try to avoid stereotypes: as others have pointed out the declaration that 'such and such is the Baptist tradition' may mean only that 'we have done it thus ever since I can remember' or 'this is how it was done in the Baptist circles where I used to live'. Although by no means the largest denomination in Latvia, the Baptist Church occupies a distinct place in society. Statistics show that it is growing: in 1985 there were 60 congregations with 4,852 members; in 1998 the Baptist Union included 76 churches with 6,180 members. In 1998 membership grew in 33 congregations. The Baptists are now considered to be a 'traditional religion' and together with representatives from the Catholic, Lutheran, Orthodox, Old Believer and Jewish religious associations they are members of the Consultative Council for Religious Affairs of the Ministry of Justice. With other denominations, in 1988 the Baptists signed an agreement with the state on military chaplaincy, and they are one of the denominations which have a legal right to teach in state schools on religion (the Baptists and Lutherans have worked out a joint curriculum for these classes).