A Longitudinal Study of Creative Personality in Women

The Mills Longitudinal Study, covering 30 years in the lives of approximately 100 women from the senior year of college to their early 50s, was begun as an investigation of creativity in women. After a presentation of the design of the study and its measures of creative potential and productivity, findings in several areas are reviewed. A central finding is that varied measures of creative potential assessed openness and unconventionality, manifested in both positive and negative ways, whereas creative productivity was associated with these traits along with strong creative motivation and resilience. Creative potential was actualized in some women in self-discovery through relationships rather than in careers. Creative traits showed impressive consistency over time, but the creative vitality of individuals fluctuated considerably with major changes in life situation. Creative productivity showed more relation to psychosocial development than did measures of creative potential.     

Childlessness and Group Psychotherapy: Psychological and Sociological Perspectives

Women's developmental theory and sociocultural expectations typically link feminine identity to motherhood. This can lead to internal conflict for women who remain childless, whether by choice or by circumstance. Group psychotherapy can be useful in that it is a place where the intrapsychic and social interact. As an arena for personal change, group therapy is a place where childless women can heal the grief, shame, and guilt associated with their childlessness, and explore other ways to express femininity, creativity, and generativity. As a form of psychosocial therapy, group is a setting where both men and women can closely examine their sociocultural expectations regarding childlessness and debunk stereotypes.     

Identity Development and Life Plan Maturity: A Comparison of Women Athletes and Nonathletes

Is women's athletic participation related to identity development and differential life plans? Using a sample of 59 predominantly white, college women (26 Division III athletes and 33 nonathletes), we examined whether women higher in identity achievement would describe more mature life plans, ones with greater complexity and stronger commitment to life goals. Results indicated that athletic participation moderated the relationship between identity achievement and life plan maturity. While identity achievement was positively associated with life plan commitment for athletes, identity achievement and life plan complexity were significantly correlated for nonathletes. Implications for counseling young women around these issues are discussed.

     

Sex-role orientation,identity formation,and self-esteem in college men and women

Contrasting hypotheses that psychological androgyny (Bem, 1974, 1975) would be associated with (1) identity confusion and a lack of personal integration or (2) identity achievement and high levels of integration were tested. Sex-role orientation, ego-identity status, and self-esteem were determined for 111 college men and women. The results support the second hypothesis, that high levels of masculinity and femininity (androgynous orientation) are conducive to identity achievement and high self-esteem. In contrast, low levels of masculine and feminine characteristics (undifferentiated sex-role orientation) were associated with uniformly low self-esteem and a lack of personal integration (identity diffusion). Sex-typing was most often associated with premature identity commitments and a lack of personality differentiation (identity foreclosure) and with high self-esteem in males but low self-esteem in females. Cross-sex-typing was associated with high levels of self-esteem and identity achievement in females, but with somewhat lower self-esteem in males and either unsuccessful (diffusion) or transitional (moratorium) levels of identity resolution.This research was supported by University of Missouri Summer Research Fellowship 3694-1100. The author would like to express his gratitude to Mona Asbed, Richard Baker, Sheila Ginsburg, Keith Shaw, and Marsha Whitson for conducting and rating the identity status interviews.     

Career Experiences and Scientific Performance: A Study of Social,Physical, Life,and Health Sciences

The experiences people have over the course of their careers are commonly held to contribute to creative achievement. In this study, an attempt was made to identify the career events contributing to creative achievement in the sciences. Prior theoretical and empirical work was used to identify relevant career events in the areas of education, domain exposure, mentoring, adversity, work procedures, collaboration, laboratory leadership, and organizational influences. Obituaries were obtained for 499 scientists working in multiple fields in the social, physical, life, and health sciences and were used to assess whether these events were evident in scientists' careers. Comparisons of high achieving and low achieving scientists with regard to these events indicated that multiple events lying in each of these general areas contributed to career achievement. The nature of the events yielding significant differences were discussed regarding their implications for the development of creative potential in scientific fields.     

From Implicit Theories to Creative Achievements: The Mediating Role of Creativity Motivation in the Relationship between Stereotypes,Growth Mindset,and Creative Achievement

Research has demonstrated that implicit theories of creativity are crucial in shaping an individual’s behavior and real‐life decisions toward being creative. The present study proposed and examined the underlying mechanisms of how two kinds of implicit theories—the growth mindset of the creative self and the stereotype of creative others—are associated with creative achievements through the mediating role of creativity motivation. Participants were 606 undergraduate students who were enrolled in an education major in two universities in China. Overall, the study found that Chinese students held a positive image toward a creative student, regarding him or her as highly competent, warm, and popular. Student perceptions of a creative other were positively related to their growth mindset of creativity. Moreover, results verified both the mediating role of creativity motivation on growth mindset, as well as the effect of positive stereotyping of the creative other on students’ creative achievement. These findings point to promising creativity motivation strategies including the cultivation of a malleable view of creativity and of creative role models, that may, in turn, promote creative achievement by encouraging students to do, learn, and accomplish new things.     

The concept of identity: research and theory.

The concept of identity is one of the few themes of psychosocial theory that has been researched directly. The dichotomy between identity achievement and role diffusion can be more accurately understood as two potential statuses among a number of resolutions to the identity crisis. Identity status appears to be related to significant childrearing experiences, particularly to dimensions of warmth, limit setting, values of autonomy, and achievement orientation. The pattern of identity achievement is different for males and females. Successful achievement of identity reflects different parental child-rearing practices for males and females.     

Taboo desires,creativity, and career choice

Two studies suggest that Protestants are more likely than Catholics or Jews to sublimate taboo desires into motives to pursue creative careers. The results are consistent with a synthesis of psychological and classic sociological theories. In Study 1, Protestants induced to have taboo sexual desires were likely to express a preference for creative careers (as opposed to prosocial ones). In Study 2, a national probability sample revealed that “conflicted” Protestants—who had taboo desires but tried to rule their sexual behavior according to their religious beliefs—worked in the most creative jobs. The effects in both studies did not hold for Catholics and Jews. Results suggest that intrapsychic conflict can partially motivate important real-world decisions, such as the choice to pursue a creative career.     

Ego Identity,Ethnic Identity,and the Psychosocial Well-Being of Ethnic Minority and Majority College Students

Although empirical studies have linked a consolidated ego identity to positive psychosocial outcomes for White middle-class adolescents, there is little research documenting this relationship for ethnic minority youth. This study investigated the relationships among ego identity, ethnic identity, and psychosocial functioning, and compared these relationships for ethnic minority and majority college students. The findings revealed that students with an achieved ego identity status had a more positive sense of ethnic identity than did students with a diffused ego identity. Findings also revealed that ethnic minority students reported stronger ethnic identification than did White students and that a stronger sense of ethnic identity was associated with more positive psychosocial outcomes among ethnic minority students, but not among White students. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Gender differences in creative achievement: a survey of explanations.

Thus far, in most fields of endeavor, the majority of seminal achievements have come from men. In this article, we have considered some possible explanations for this phenomenon, and for each of these explanations, some theories of creativity that would stress it. We have emphasized that creative achievement depends on both biological and environmental factors and that inborn talents establish a potential whose fulfillment depends on appropriate experiences. Because men and women differ in both factors, either or both could have produced the achievement difference. Moreover, achievement can occur in fields requiring different abilities. Talent may not be wide ranging but directed toward specific endeavors, with men and women differing not in amount of talent but in the fields preferred. Changes in women's roles and cross-cultural studies may shed further light on the gender difference, but environmental explanations alone are premature.     

Creative Cognition and Psychosis Vulnerability: What’s the Difference?

Evidence from experimental psychology provides unequivocal support for enhanced creativity among individuals who are prone to psychotic and mood disorders. At the same time, there is strong epidemiological evidence for greater incidence of creative achievement among those diagnosed with bipolar disorder (but not schizophrenia). This review examines the evidence for common factors predisposing an individual to creativity and psychosis, as well as factors that distinguish the capacity for creative achievement from the creative potential that may be inherent in psychosis vulnerability. Factors implicated as common to creative potential and psychosis vulnerability include enhanced divergent thinking, reduced latent inhibition and preattentive filtering mechanisms; on the other hand, greater cognitive flexibility, motivation, and openness to experience tend to be associated with creative achievement, but not psychosis. This evidence is considered with respect to the utility of tailored vocational interventions to effectively harness creative potential, which may be useful for young individuals in the early stages of illness or their unaffected family members.     

Identity Processing Styles and Psychosocial Balance during Early and Middle Adulthood: The Role of Identity in Intimacy and Generativity

Identity styles and Eriksonian psychosocial balance were examined in young adults (N = 163; 64.4% women) and middle-aged adults (N = 132; 51.5% women). Participants completed self-report measures of identity styles (informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant), identity commitment, and psychosocial balance (identity, intimacy, and generativity). Different patterns of psychosocial balance were found for each identity style, with largely consistent findings across age groups. The diffuse-avoidant style was negatively associated with all forms of psychosocial balance, the normative style was positively associated with identity and intimacy balance, and the informational style was positively associated with intimacy and generativity. Structural equation modeling revealed that identity balance predicted both intimacy and generativity for the diffuse-avoidant style (negative prediction) and normative style (positive prediction), whereas the informational style provided direct positive prediction of intimacy and generativity. The importance of an informational identity style for psychosocial balance during both early and middle adulthood is discussed.     

The princess in the tower: Zelda Fitzgerald's creative impasse

Gifted women often find it difficult to integrate an acceptable social image with an autonomous artistic identity. This paper explores the ambitions and conflicts of Zelda Fitzgerald, who aspired to be an artist in several fields, but whose fame is largely contingent on the role she played in the life of her husband, F. Scott Fitzgerald. Zelda's flamboyant public pose, which served as a model for many of her husband's literary characters, is interpreted as an attempt to organize a consistent identity configuration by means of constant appeals for applause from an admiring audience. But although this configuration provided some stability and cohesion for her during her twenties, it was a superficial and vulnerable structure which failed to support her serious artistic aspirations. An examination of the separation conflicts and difficulties in internalization which contributed to Zelda's dilemma leads to a consideration of the role of the father in the organization of differentiated female achievements. Although Zelda Fitzgerald's pathology was extreme, her struggles suggest useful insights into the intrapsychic and social barriers commonly confronting creative women.     

Continuing education,identity, sex role,and psychosocial development in adult women

Comparisons on psychosocial development and sex-role identification were made between 39 adult women returning to college in midlife and 40 traditional homemakers. Significantly more homemakers had foreclosed on the adult identity issues of goals and religion and scored lower on a measure of psychological androgyny. Women in continuing education showed greater evidence of identity crisis as they neared graduation. The two groups did not differ along Eriksonian developmental stages, but there were differences in the pattern of favorable and unfavorable resolutions of psychosocial crises within both groups. The results support the existence of an identity crisis as a response to life events in adulthood and demonstrate a relationship between behavioral and self-report indices of rejection or acceptance of the traditional feminine role.This research was completed in partial fulfillment of the doctorate degree from the Graduate School of Education and Human Development, University of Rochester.     

Working Memory,Cerebellum, and Creativity

There is little doubt that career experiences contribute to scientific achievement; however this relationship has yet to be thoroughly investigated in terms the effects on scientific creativity. In this study, a historiometric approach was used to examine 3 areas of adult career experiences common to scientific achievement. In doing so, prior theoretical work was used to identify career experiences relevant to scientific achievement, and 3 theoretical models were proposed to account for these experiences—adversity, collaborations, and work strategies. Biographies of eminent scientists were then content coded and analyzed. The results indicated that the adversity model did not predict scientific creativity. However, the work strategies model and, to some degree, the collaborations model showed some promise in understanding the development of creative potential in scientists. The nature of the significant relationships among the model components and scientific creativity are discussed in addition to their implications for the development of the creative potential of scientists.     

Identity and Psychosocial Development in Adulthood

Psychosocial development in adulthood is viewed from several perspectives. Stage-specific crises in ego growth associated with different life cycle periods are addressed in terms of status measures expanding on Erikson's polar alternative resolutions (Erikson, 1959). The developmental linkages between these stages are discussed using these status measures, and development from one status to another within a particular psychosocial stage is examined. With respect to identity itself, the cyclical process that might describe identity re-formulation through the adult psychosocial stages is discussed and illustrated. Finally, 2 case studies are presented as examples of adult psychosocial development.     

The relationship between positive parental involvement and identity achievement during adolescence

Parental support and provision of structure are linked to positive outcomes in adolescents, yet the influence of parental involvement on identity development during adolescence has not been clearly established. The present study examined the relationship between adolescent identity achievement and parental support, social monitoring, and school monitoring among 10th and 12th graders. It was hypothesized that parental support and monitoring would be associated with higher identity achievement. It was also our goal to clarify the relationship between gender and adolescent identity achievement. The girls in this study reported higher levels of each of the positive parental involvement factors than did boys, but there were no gender differences in identity achievement. Parental support and monitoring of social and school activities were significant predictors of identity achievement across age and gender. Results also suggested that the association between parental involvement and identity achievement differs by gender and it changes as a function of age.     

Reaching for Independence: Counseling Implications for Youth With Spina Bifida

Spina bifida, a congenital physical disability, is indirectly associated with difficulties in scholastic achievement, social development, and self‐determination. Environment can have an impact on psychosocial development and impede functioning academically, socially, and vocationally. Counselors must be aware of the societal atmosphere to identify potential difficulties and more efficiently meet the needs of children and adolescents with spina bifida.     

Socioeconomic status, resources, psychological experiences, and emotional responses: a test of the reserve capacity model

The current study used ecological momentary assessment to test several tenets of the reserve capacity model (L.C. Gallo & K. A. Matthews, 2003). Women (N = 108) with varying socioeconomic status (SES) monitored positive and negative psychosocial experiences and emotions across 2 days. Measures of intrapsychic and social resources were aggregated to represent the reserve capacity available to manage stress. Lower SES was associated with less perceived control and positive affect and more social strain. Control and strain contributed to the association between SES and positive affect. Lower SES elicited greater positive but not negative emotional reactivity to psychosocial experiences. Women with low SES had fewer resources relative to those with higher SES, and resources contributed to the association between SES and daily experiences.