The Making of Female Presidents and Prime Ministers: The Impact of Birth Order, Sex, of Siblings, and Father-Daughter Dynamics

Although research into the factors that may affect male achievement of political leadership is relatively robust, very few studies on the making of female presidents and prime ministers exist. This paper examines the literature on birth order, sex of siblings, and parent-daughter dynamics to see whether the findings for male political leaders—that first-born individuals will be overrepresented as compared with later-born siblings—also hold for female ones. Two other hypotheses were tested concerning differences in birth order and sex of siblings between female political leaders and a larger sample of women. A review of the literature on parent-daughter dynamics suggests that this may be another important variable for future research into explanations for the success of women who achieve senior-level positions of power. The findings suggest that first-born women, like first-born men, are overrepresented among political leaders; that first-born women are overrepresented among female political leaders as compared with their numbers in a larger sample population; and that fewer female political leaders have an older brother than would be expected to occur in a larger sample population. The last finding applies only for women who come to power in the period 1960–1989, not those who gained office more recently.     

Infant birth weight among women with or at high risk for HIV infection: the impact of clinical, behavioral, psychosocial, and demographic factors.

The purpose of these analyses was to provide a prospective examination of the impact of HIV on birth weight using clinical, behavioral, psychosocial, and demographic correlates. HIV-positive (n = 319) and HIV-negative (n = 220) pregnant women matched for HIV risk factors (i.e., drug use and sexual risk behaviors) were interviewed during the 3rd trimester of pregnancy and 6 weeks postpartum. Medical chart reviews were also conducted for the HIV-seropositive pregnant women to verify pregnancy-related and birth outcome data. In a logistic regression analysis, model chi2(9, N = 518) = 124.8, p < .001, controlling for parity and gestational age, women who were HIV seropositive were 2.6 times more likely to have an infant with low birth weight. In addition, Black women and those who did not live with their partners were more than 2 times as likely to have infants with low birth weight, and those who smoked were 3.2 times more likely to have infants with low birth weight. Knowing that women with HIV, those who are Black, and those not living with a partner are at highest risk for adverse birth outcomes can help those in prenatal clinics and HIV specialty clinics to target resources and develop prevention interventions. This is particularly important for women with HIV because birth weight is associated with risk of HIV transmission from mother to child.     

Sexual Coercion,Trauma, and Sex Work in Justice-Involved Women with Substance Use Disorders

Sexual victimization is associated with mental health problems, trauma, substance use, and incarceration. We recruited 200 formerly incarcerated women with substance use disorders in Chicago. We examined whether empowerment moderates relationships between trauma symptoms, trading sex, and being forced to have sex. There was a significant 3-way interaction among sexual coercion, trading, and empowerment scores on trauma symptoms. For women who have not traded sex, lower levels of empowerment were associated with a larger difference in trauma symptoms between women who have been coerced or traded sex. For women who had been coerced, lower levels of empowerment were associated with a larger difference in trauma symptomatology between those who have traded sex or not. Promoting empowerment in sexually traumatized women might reduce the harm that results from being victimized. Furthermore, providing interventions that educate women regarding gender and cultural roles could help women avoid situations that result in exploitation.     

Stuttering,alcohol consumption and smoking

PurposeLimited research has been published regarding the association between stuttering and substance use. An earlier study provided no evidence for such an association, but the authors called for further research to be conducted using a community sample. The present study used data from a community sample to investigate whether an association between stuttering and alcohol consumption or regular smoking exists in late adolescence and adulthood.MethodsRegression analyses were carried out on data from a birth cohort study, the National Child Development Study (NCDS), whose initial cohort included 18,558 participants who have since been followed up until age 55. In the analyses, the main predictor variable was parent-reported stuttering at age 16. Parental socio-economic group, cohort member's sex and childhood behavioural problems were also included. The outcome variables related to alcohol consumption and smoking habits at ages 16, 23, 33, 41, 46, 50 and 55.ResultsNo significant association was found between stuttering and alcohol consumption or stuttering and smoking at any of the ages. It was speculated that the absence of significant associations might be due to avoidance of social situations on the part of many of the participants who stutter, or adoption of alternative coping strategies.ConclusionBecause of the association between anxiety and substance use, individuals who stutter and are anxious might be found to drink or smoke excessively, but as a group, people who stutter are not more likely than those who do not to have high levels of consumption of alcohol or nicotine.     

The Association of Religiosity,Sexual Education,and Parental Factors with Risky Sexual Behaviors Among Adolescents and Young Adults

This study examined the association of religiosity, sexual education and family structure with risky sexual behaviors among adolescents and young adults. The nationally representative sample, from the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth, included 3,168 women and men ages 15–21 years. Those who viewed religion as very important, had frequent church attendance, and held religious sexual attitudes were 27–54% less likely to have had sex and had significantly fewer sex partners than peers. Participants whose formal and parental sexual education included abstinence and those from two-parent families were 15% less likely to have had sex and had fewer partners.     

Sex ratio and women's career choice: does a scarcity of men lead women to choose briefcase over baby?

Although the ratio of males to females in a population is known to influence behavior in nonhuman animals, little is known about how sex ratio influences human behavior. We propose that sex ratio affects women's family planning and career choices. Using both historical data and experiments, we examined how sex ratio influences women's career aspirations. Findings showed that a scarcity of men led women to seek high-paying careers and to delay starting a family. This effect was driven by how sex ratio altered the mating market, not just the job market. Sex ratios involving a scarcity of men led women to seek lucrative careers because of the difficulty women have in finding an investing, long-term mate under such circumstances. Accordingly, this low-male sex ratio produced the strongest desire for lucrative careers in women who are least able to secure a mate. These findings demonstrate that sex ratio has far-reaching effects in humans, including whether women choose briefcase over baby.     

Support during birth interacts with prior trauma and birth intervention to predict postnatal post-traumatic stress symptoms

Background: Many women experience childbirth as traumatic and 2% develop post-traumatic stress disorder. This study examined the role of health practitioner support and personal control during birth as predictors of post-traumatic stress (PTS) symptoms, adjusting for vulnerability factors of prior trauma, depression, control beliefs and birth intervention. It also investigated interactions between support, prior trauma and birth intervention and their association with PTS symptoms.

Methods: A prospective longitudinal survey of 138 women recruited from UK NHS maternity clinics. Measures were taken in pregnancy, 3 weeks and 3 months after the birth.

Results: Support and control during birth were not predictive of postnatal PTS symptoms. However, support was predictive of PTS symptoms in a subset of women with prior trauma (β?=??0.41, R ²?=?16%) at both 3-weeks and 3-months postpartum. The interaction of birth intervention and support was associated with PTS symptoms 3 months after birth, the relationship between support and PTS symptoms was stronger in women experiencing more intervention.

Conclusions: Low support from health practitioners is predictive of postnatal PTS symptoms in women who have a history of trauma. Longer term effects of low support on postnatal PTS symptoms are also found in women who had more intervention during birth.     

Are Transgender Persons at Higher Risk for HIV Than Other Sexual Minorities? A Comparison of HIV Prevalence and Risks

SUMMARY

Recent studies have shown that transgender people are at high risk for HIV. Few studies, however, have directly compared the HIV risks and sexual health of transgender persons with that of other sexual minority populations. This study used baseline data of intervention studies targeting transgender persons, men who have sex with men, and women who have sex with women and men to compare their HIV risk behavior and sexual health. No significant differences were found between transgender persons and nontransgender men or women in consistent condom use or attitudes toward condom use. Transgender persons were less likely to have multiple partners and more likely to be monogamous than men who have sex with men; no differences were found between transgender persons and the women in this respect. When combining data on condom use, monogamy, and multiple partners, transgender persons did not differ from either nontransgender group in their overall risk for HIV. Transgender persons were less likely than the men or the women to have been tested for HIV. With regard to HIV prevalence, 17% of the men compared to only one transgender person and none of the women reported being HIV-positive. Transgender persons were also less likely than men who have sex with men to use drugs; no differences were found in the use of alcohol. However, with regard to mental health, transgender persons were more likely than the men to have experienced depression and more likely than men or women to have considered or attempted suicide. Finally, transgender persons reported the lowest levels of support from family and peers. Thus, in our sample, transgender persons appear to be at lower risk for HIV but at higher risk for mental health concerns than men who have sex with men. Remarkably few differences were found between transgender persons and women who have sex with women and men-a finding which might reflect the impact of social stigma on sexual health and have implications for the design of future HIV/STI prevention efforts.     

A combination of combat experience,early abduction,and severe traumatization fuels appetitive aggression and violence among abductees of rebel war in Northern Uganda

Individuals who perpetrate violence may likely perceive violence as appealing and infliction of violence to derive pleasure is termed as appetitive aggression. Individuals who were abducted as children into an armed group often experience a higher number of traumatic event types, that is traumatic load and are usually socialized in a violence-endorsing environment. This study aims to investigate the interaction between age at initial abduction with that of traumatic load, and their influence on appetitive aggression along with perpetration of violent acts by former members of an armed rebel group of both sexes. Semi-structured interviews were conducted among a target group of formerly abducted rebel-war survivors (including participants with and without combat experience) from Northern Uganda. Participants included 596 women and 570 men with N = 1,166 (M_age = 32.58, SD_age = 9.76, range: 18–80 years). We conducted robust linear regression models to investigate the influence of age at initial abduction, traumatic load, combat experience, and biological sex on appetitive aggression as well as their perpetrated violent acts. Our study shows, appetitive aggression and the number of perpetrated violent acts were specifically increased in individuals who were abducted young, experienced several traumatic events in their lifetime, and with previous combat experience. For perpetrated violence men showed increased levels whereas for appetitive aggression the association was independent of biological sex. Therefore, early abducted individuals with a higher traumatic load, who have combat experience, need to be given special intervention to prevent any further violence.     

POSTPARTUM PARTNER SUPPORT, DEMAND-WITHDRAW COMMUNICATION, AND MATERNAL STRESS

The weeks following the birth of a child can be stressful for new mothers. Maternal stress may be increased when mothers are dissatisfied with instrumental partner support (e.g., division of childcare duties and family decision-making power). The purpose of the current study was to determine if there is an association between dissatisfaction with partner support and maternal stress in the postpartum period, and to examine whether that association is mediated by demand-withdraw communication between partners. Participants were 49 women who completed questionnaires about satisfaction with partner support, female demand/male withdraw communication in their relationship, and their own perceived stress approximately 8 weeks after giving birth. Findings support the hypothesis that demand-withdraw communication mediates the association between dissatisfaction with partner support and maternal stress. This finding suggests that fathers' withdrawal in the context of mothers' requests for discussion or change appears to be associated with increased levels of maternal stress.     

Social determinants of health,prenatal maternal stress,and earlier birth during the COVID-19 pandemic

During the COVID-19 pandemic, pregnant women, especially those from socioeconomically disadvantaged and marginalized groups, experienced unprecedented stress. Prenatal stress and social determinants of health (SDoH) such as lower education and lack of a relationship partner are known to contribute to earlier birth. However, whether SDoH and stress independently contribute or whether the harmful impact of SDoH is mediated by stress is unknown. Moreover, the contributions of these factors has not been investigated in the context of a communal health crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic. To examine these processes, we used a longitudinal cohort of 2473 women pregnant during the COVID-19 pandemic who reported a live birth. We compared structural equation models predicting gestational age at birth from SDoH (race/ethnicity, education, financial security, health insurance, relationship status, and lifetime abuse) and from prenatal maternal stress related and unrelated to the COVID-19 pandemic. Results indicate that the association of SDoH with earlier birth was partially mediated by prenatal stress. These findings help uncover mechanisms explaining health disparities in the U.S. and highlight the need to address both SDoH and the stress that these factors produce in under-resourced and marginalized communities.     

The role of sex hormones and of 2D:4D ratio in individual differences in cognitive abilities

The present study aimed at investigating the role of sex hormones in individual differences in cognitive abilities. This was achieved by a combination of two methods, reflecting 2 critical periods of hormonal secretion: prenatal, based on the 2D:4D ratio, and postnatal, based on circulating hormone levels. Both methods were tested in 39 men and 41 women, who completed a battery of 6 cognitive tasks. Results showed significant sex differences on the mental rotation task, with men outperforming women. A positive correlation was found between testosterone and performance on the mental rotation task for the combined sample (men and women). A significant interaction was found between sex and estrogen on mental rotation task. Findings also revealed a significant interaction between sex and right hand 2D:4D ratio on different memory tasks. Findings regarding between- and within-sex differences in cognition are discussed in light of the organisational and activational effects of sex hormones.     

You’re Better Respected When You Carry Yourself as a Man: Black Men’s Personal Accounts of the Down Low “lifestyle”

Although the notion of a down low life style, called various things at various times, has a long history in the black community, the past few years have been marked by an exponential increase in attention of this phenomenon in both the mainstream press and scholarly work. However, much of this work has focused on exploring whether men on the down low present a unique threat for HIV infection to black women. Currently, there exist very few scholarly works exploring the lives of black men who have sex with men and women that specifically address their own experiences living on the down low or how these men personally define what it means to be on the down low. In this article, we explore why black men who have sex with men and black men who have sex with men and women, including those who self-identify as gay, bisexual or as being on the down low, come to use the down low label and what it means to them to be on the down low.     

The impact of prenatal maternal stress and optimistic disposition on birth outcomes in medically high-risk women.

A sizable body of evidence indicates that prenatal maternal stress (PNMS) has an adverse impact on birth outcomes, including birth weight and gestational age at delivery. The authors hypothesized that effects of PNMS are attributable in part to dispositions such as pessimism that lead women to view their lives as stressful and that effects of PNMS and disposition on birth outcome are mediated by prenatal health behaviors. Using structural equations modeling procedures, the authors examined prospective impact of PNMS and dispositional optimism on birth weight and gestational age in a medically high-risk sample (N = 129), controlling for effects of risk and ethnicity. After its strong inverse association with optimism was accounted for, PNMS had no impact on birth outcomes. Women who were least optimistic delivered infants who weighed significantly less, controlling for gestational age. Optimists were more likely to exercise, and exercise was associated with lower risk of preterm delivery. Results suggest that chronic stress in pregnancy may be a reflection of underlying dispositions that contribute to adverse birth outcomes.     

Nontraditional sex role aspirations,gender identity conflict,and disordered eating among college women

Many studies point directly to the role played by sex roles and indirectly to the role played by gender identity in the onset of disordered eating. In this study, women who report adhering to nontraditional sex role aspirations are almost twice as likely as other women to report purging or frequent bingeing. Women who exhibit gender identity conflict by drawing a male or androgynous figure on the Draw-A-Person Test or by reporting a pattern of wishing they had been born a male are more likely than other women to report purging or frequent bingeing. The results are consonant with a hypothesis regarding the etiology of disordered eating that implicates gender identity conflicts among women, particularly women who exhibit nontraditional sex role aspirations.     

Sex-role self-concept and persistence in a traditional vs nontraditional college major for women

This article reports a 3-year follow-up study of a sample of women engineering and home economics majors who were previously studied as freshmen. It was hypothesized that persistence in the two curricula would be related to sex roles, with feminine-typed women more likely to leave engineering and masculine-typed women more likely to leave home economics. The findings did not generally support this hypothesis, however. Women in the two majors who persisted were not found to differ significantly from women who changed majors or dropped out on either sex roles or on ratings given as freshmen of their satisfaction with and certainty of college major. Persisters in engineering had higher college entrance SAT math scores than changers or dropouts. Those who changed majors from home economics tended to go into less traditional fields than home economics. Nearly all of the women who changed from engineering chose another nontraditional or male-dominated field as their second major.     

Sex differences in relationships among anger, depression, and coping strategies of Japanese students

This study investigated sex differences in the relationships among an ger, depression, and coping strategies. Undergraduate students, 77 men and 130 women, 3 not identified by sex, voluntarily participated. Participants made ratings on a self-report about anger, depression, coping strategies, and mental health. Analyses showed that women who reported themselves as angry tended to cope with stress by optimistic and active strategies, while women who reported themselves as depressed tended to cope with stress by withdrawn and passive strategies. Men who reported being depressed tended to select emotion-focused cognitive coping, while men who reported being angry selected no specific coping. Adoption of engaged emotion focused coping strategies were related to mental health only for women.     

Addiction in Maternity: Prevalence of Mental Illness,Substance Use,and Trauma

Women living in vulnerable neighborhoods experience higher rates of poverty, homelessness, psychiatric issues, illicit substance use, rates of HIV, and a lowered life expectancy. The aim of the study was to further explore the history of mental illness and trauma in a sample of women (N?=?31) who had recently given birth and had a substance use problem while pregnant. We investigated sociodemographic characteristics, history of trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), rates of substance use and dependence, and psychiatric symptoms. Childhood and adult traumatic experiences were found in the majority of the sample, and one-third presented with suspected PTSD diagnosis at the time of the interview. Women-centered services are in great demand, as well as trauma informed care, and further research on appropriate treatment for substance using, traumatized, women with a mental illness.     

Sex Under Pressure: Jerks,Boorish Behavior,and Gender Hierarchy

Pressuring someone into having sex would seem to differ in significant ways from pressuring someone into investing in one’s business or buying an expensive bauble. In affirming this claim, I take issue with a recent essay by Sarah Conly (‘Seduction, Rape, and Coercion’, Ethics, October 2004), who thinks that pressuring into sex can be helpfully evaluated by analogy to these other instances of using pressure. Drawing upon work by Alan Wertheimer, the leading theorist of coercion, she argues that so long as pressuring does not amount to coercing someone into having sex, her consent to sex answers the important ethical questions about it. In this essay, I argue that to understand the real significance of pressuring into sex, we need to appeal to background considerations, especially the male-dominant gender hierarchy, which renders sexual pressuring different from its non-sexual analogues. Treating pressure to have sex like any other sort of interpersonal pressure obscures the role such sexual pressure might play in supporting gender hierarchy, and fails to explain why pressure by men against women is more problematic than pressure by women against men. I suggest that men pressuring women to have sex differs from the reverse case because of at least two factors: (1) gendered social institutions which add to the pressures against women, and (2) the greater likelihood that men, not women, will use violence if denied, and the lesser ability of women compared to men to resist such violence without harm. I would like to thank Marcia Baron, Sylvia Berryman, Elizabeth Brake, Dominic McIver Lopes, Jennifer Warriner, Janet Wesselius, two anonymous reviewers for Res Publica and the audiences at the University of British Columbia Feminism and Philosophy Workshop and the Western Canadian Philosophical Association meetings in Winnipeg for helpful discussion and comments.