AIDS-Related Stigmatization: Instrumental and Symbolic Attitudes1

We investigate the role that instrumental and symbolic functions of attitudes play in the rejection of people infected with HIV. In a series of studies (total N = 431), we manipulate the symbolic component of AIDS, by comparing it to a fictitious disease that is identical in every way to AIDS, excepting its symbolic association with homosexuality and IV drug use. Two studies indicated that the symbolic component had no effect on either social distance or perceptions of disease severity. A third study indicated that instrumental aspects of severity, contagiousness, and treatability were significant determinants of social distance. A fourth study found that the stigma of association with homosexuality increased a mild disease's stigma. A fifth study showed that previous research showing the importance of a symbolic component in AIDS-related attitudes may have relied on a confounded measure of the symbolic component of attitudes. These 5 studies suggest the importance of both instrumental and symbolic attitudes in illness. Instrumental functions seem to outweigh the impact of symbolic functions of AIDS-related attitudes.     

Fear or Moral Indignation? Predicting Attitudes Toward Parolees1

Instrumental beliefs, value-expressive beliefs, and attitudes related to parolees were investigated in 2 contexts. In Study I, students (N= 180) responded to value-expressive measures in a mass survey and then, a month later, read 2 scenarios and completed measures of instrumental beliefs, attitudes, and intentions. Instrumental beliefs were better predictors of behavioral attitudes than were value-expressive beliefs. In Study 2, the format of the measures was altered and all measures were administered concurrently. As in Study I, results showed that instrumental beliefs were consistent and strong predictors of attitudes toward parolees. Attitudes related to parolees appear to be based more on practical concerns (instrumental beliefs) than on moral or symbolic issues (value-expressive beliefs).     

Attraction Toward and Nonverbal Stigmatization of Gay Males and Persons With AIDS Evidence of Symbolic Over Instrumental Attirudinal Structures

AIDS, the disease, has become highly associated with gays in our society. In fact, so much so that homosexual tolerance is more predictive of nonverbal involvement with persons with AIDS (PWAs) than it is of nonverbal involvement with gays. Additionally, fear of AIDS contraction is just as predictive of greater nonverbal involvement with gays and PWAs as is homosexual tolerance. This adds evidence to the claim that symbolic (anti-gay) and instrumental (fear of contraction) factors both must be considered when predicting attitudes and behaviors toward PWAs. Finally, these findings add further evidence to the claim that one's true attitudes are not always discernible from one's actions. This three-part investigation examines Stigmatization toward gays and persons with AIDS as more a symbolic than instrumental process, through the expression of attraction (task, social, and physical) and desire for future interaction, and through nonverbal expressions of involvement.     

Responses to Persons with AIDS: Fear of Contagion or Stigma?1

Recently it has been argued that responses to persons with Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) are more a function of the association of AIDS with homosexuality than they are concerns about contagion. This research provided a further test of these arguments using an experimental design in which the target disease's contagiousness and association with homosexuality were manipulated. The results indicated that willingness to interact with a disease victim was strongly related to the contagiousness of the disease but only weakly related to its association with homosexuality. These findings are in line with recent research on lay conceptions of physical illness and argue that avoidance of disease victims, including persons with AIDS, primarily reflects concerns over contracting the disease. The implications of these findings for lay illness conceptions and how lay people respond to disease victims are discussed.     

Right-Wing Authoritarianism, Attitude Salience, and Beliefs about Matters of Fact

Previous investigations have demonstrated a relationship between endorsement of right-wing authoritarian (RWA) ideology and attitudes toward social and societal issues (e.g., abortion, drug use, affirmative action, and homosexuality). By contrast, the present studies examined the relationship between RWA and beliefs about matters of fact bearing on such issues (e.g., estimates of the prevalence of third trimester abortions, AIDS, concealed weapons). Studies 1 and 2 supported the propositions that high-RWA and low-RWA participants would show differences in their informational beliefs about sociopolitical matters consistent with differences in their respective ideologies and consistent with their putative differential cynicism about human nature. Study 3 demonstrated that the relationship between RWA and informational beliefs is amplified by the heightened salience of attitudes toward the targets of those beliefs.     

Gender-Role Variables and Attitudes Toward Homosexuality

Two studies examined the relationships of gender-role variables to attitudes toward homosexuality. Study 1, a meta-analysis, found that endorsement of traditional gender-role beliefs, modern sexism, and hypermasculinity were related to attitudes, but that gender-role self-concept was not. Study 2 examined the relationships of endorsement of male role norms, attitudes toward women, hostile sexism, benevolent sexism, modern sexism, hypermasculinity, and hyperfemininity to attitudes toward homosexuality and self-reported antigay behaviors in a college student sample. The best predictors of attitudes were participant gender, endorsement of male role norms, attitudes toward women, benevolent sexism, and modern sexism. The best predictors of antigay behavior were participant gender and hyper-gender-role orientation; attitudes toward women and modern sexism were also predictors for men but not for women.     

Attitudes Toward People Living With HIV/AIDS: A Model of Attitudes to Illness1

This study examined attitudes toward people living with HIV/AIDS within a sample of 220 young men and women. As predicted, a multiple regression analysis revealed that the fear of contracting HIV/AIDS through casual contact was a significant predictor of both men's and women's willingness to interact with people living with HIV/AIDS. Attitudes toward homosexuality were also a significant predictor of attitudes toward people living with HIV/AIDS among women, who generally have a low risk of contracting the disease in Western societies. These results indicate that attitudes toward people with a serious illness may be strongly related to the perceived risk of contracting the disease.     

Reconsidering the Role of Attitudes in Exercise Behavior: A Decision Theoretic Approach1

Two studies demonstrated that subjective expected utility (SEU) theory predicted interest in, but not adherence to, a weightlifting exercise program. The studies also showed that attitudes were related to adherence for certain individuals. Specifically, attitudes toward not weightlifting were related to the number of days experienced subjects weightlifted. In addition, in Study 1, experienced subjects had more positive attitudes toward weightlifting and more negative attitudes toward not weightlifting than did inexperienced subjects, and the two groups differed on a number of underlying beliefs. Similarly, in Study 2, experienced subjects had more positive attitudes toward weightlifting and differed from inexperienced subjects on a number of underlying beliefs. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for several issues: the usefulness of SEU theory in the exercise domain; the importance of considering attitudes toward alternative courses of action (including inaction) when attempting to predict exercis–or any other–behavior; the need to distinguish between exercise adoption (initiation) and maintenance (adherence); and the importance of Beach's (1982, 1985) distinction between deasion making and decision implementation.     

Implicit and explicit measures of sexual orientation attitudes: in group preferences and related behaviors and beliefs among gay and straight men

The relations among implicit and explicit measures of sexual orientation attitudes and sexual-orientation-related behavior and beliefs among gay men (Study 1) and straight men (Studies 1 and 2) were explored. Study 1 found relations between implicit and explicit measures of sexual orientation attitudes, large differences between gay and straight men on both implicit and explicit measures, and that these measures predicted sexual-orientation-related behaviors among gay men. Also, only straight men exhibited a negative relation between their attitudes toward homosexuality and heterosexuality. Study 2 found that as straight men held more negative attitudes toward homosexuality, they more strongly endorsed the importance of heterosexual identity and of traditional masculine gender roles. These endorsements mediated the negative relation between their attitudes toward heterosexuality and homosexuality. Implications for assessing attitudes toward sexual orientation and their relations for sexual orientation identity are discussed.     

Symbolic Politics and the Prediction of Attitudes Toward Federal Regulation of Reduced‐Exposure Tobacco Products1

The present study relies on symbolic politics theory to predict public attitudes toward the federal regulation of conventional tobacco products (a familiar attitude object) and reduced‐exposure tobacco products (a relatively novel attitude object). We predicted that attitudes toward most forms of regulation would be more strongly influenced by symbolic beliefs about the role of government in society than by self‐interested concerns, with the exception of taxation. We predicted that the financial consequences of taxation policies would be less ambiguous for those who are affected, resulting in a stronger relationship between self‐interest and policy attitudes. The results strongly supported our hypotheses, suggesting a process by which symbolic beliefs and self‐interested concerns influence attitude formation. Theoretical and policy implications are discussed.     

Essentialist beliefs about homosexuality: structure and implications for prejudice

The structure of beliefs about the nature of homosexuality, and their association with antigay attitudes, were examined in three studies (Ns = 309, 487, and 216). Contrary to previous research, three dimensions were obtained: the belief that homosexuality is biologically based, immutable, and fixed early in life; the belief that it is cross-culturally and historically universal; and the belief that it constitutes a discrete, entitative type with defining features. Study 1 supported a three-factor structure for essentialist beliefs about male homosexuality. Study 2 replicated this structure with confirmatory factor analysis, extended it to beliefs about lesbianism, showed that all three dimensions predicted antigay attitudes, and demonstrated that essentialist beliefs mediate associations between prejudice and gender, ethnicity, and religiosity. Study 3 replicated the belief structure and mediation effects in a community sample and showed that essentialist beliefs predict antigay prejudice independently of right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, and political conservatism.     

对由不同途径感染的艾滋病患者的区别性反应及中介分析

研究探讨了中国大学生对由不同途径感染的艾滋病患者的区别性反应,涉及的因变量包括对艾滋病患者的总体感受、情绪反应、责任感知、接触意愿等。结果显示：1）和主观不可控途径（输血和母婴）相比,大学生对由可控途径（性和吸毒）感染的艾滋病患者感到更多的生气、讨厌和恐惧,更少地感到同情,表现出更强的负性态度,更少的接触意愿;同时还认为由性和吸毒感染的艾滋病患者应该承担更多的责任,更应该接受强制处理;2）女性比男性表现出对艾滋病患者更低的接触意愿,但是在其它反应上,均没发现性别差异;3)中介分析显示,对由不同途径感染的艾滋病患者的不同的态度反应在一定程度上是由不同的情绪反应导致的,负性情绪会导致负性态度,同情会导致正性态度。这些结果提示,要减少对艾滋病患者的偏见和歧视等负性反应,营造一个有利于艾滋病防治的社会环境,对由不同途径感染的艾滋病患者应该有针对性地采取不同的策略,要尽可能减少负性情绪、唤起同情心     

Religiosity,the need for structure,death attitudes,and funeral preferences

Study one (N?=?309) verified the common assumption that religious beliefs provide a sense of structure. Religion and structure indices contributed both shared and unique variance to the prediction of hope, affect, and life satisfaction. In a second study, 368 participants self-reported death attitudes, desire for structure, and answered questions concerning their own death (e.g., disposition of body, style of memorial). Strongly held religious beliefs linked to more positive and less negative attitudes toward death. The need for structure resonated with pain and natural aspects of death. Religious beliefs and structure needs further independently influenced attitudes toward and planning for one's own death.     

The Unmaking of Prejudice: How Christian Beliefs Relate to Attitudes Toward Homosexuals

We propose that the internalization of orthodox Christian beliefs serves as a basis for a personal moral standard that discourages prejudice against others as well as for self-critical emotions that follow upon behaving in a discriminatory manner. Two correlational studies tested hypotheses derived from our theory. Study 1 demonstrated that to the extent people endorse orthodox Christian beliefs, they report an internal motivation to respond without prejudice toward homosexuals. Study 2 demonstrated that, when controlling for the effects of right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), endorsement of orthodox Christian beliefs was related to positive attitudes toward homosexuals as individuals or as a group, but not toward homosexuality as a behavior or lifestyle.     

Transparent emotions? A critical analysis of Moran's transparency claim

I critically analyze Richard Moran's account of knowing one's own emotions, which depends on the Transparency Claim (TC) for self-knowledge. Applied to knowing one's own beliefs, TC states that when one is asked “Do you believe P?”, one can answer by referencing reasons for believing P. TC works for belief because one is justified in believing that one believes P if one can give reasons for why P is true. Emotions, however, are also conceptually related to concerns; they involve a response to something one cares about. As a consequence, acquiring self-knowledge of one's emotions requires knowledge of other mental attitudes, which falls outside the scope of TC. Hence, TC cannot be applied to emotions.     

Masculine Generic Terms and Misperception of AIDS Risk1

Three studies were performed concerning generic references to homosexuality in the context of AIDS. Study One demonstrated that for two major newspapers and two major news magazines, the majority of references to high-risk-behavior groups for AIDS employ generic references to homosexuality rather than specifying male homosexuality. In Study Two, 269 male and female college students ranked seven groups according to their AIDS risk. Lesbians' risk was overestimated by two thirds of the subjects. Study Three used 112 subjects to test experimentally the causal link between generics and overestimation of lesbians' risk. Results showed that describing “homosexual” risk leads to higher estimates of lesbians' risk than describing “homosexual men's” risk or than explicitly excluding lesbians, p < .0001. Results suggest that high risk estimates for lesbians may promote the idea that AIDS is a “gay disease”, thus possibly increasing anti-homosexual backlash and heterosexuals' underestimation of their own risk. Results are discussed in connection with the Whorfian Hypothesis, word contamination effects, and prototype research. Recommendations are made for improving discussions of AIDS risk in media and educational presentations.     

Health Beliefs and Attitudes Toward People Living With HIV/AIDS

The present study was concerned with the relationship between health beliefs and attitudes toward people living with HIV/AIDS. Measures of attitudes toward people with HIV/AIDS, beliefs about the transmission of HIV, and health locus of control beliefs were completed by 128 undergraduate students. In general, subjects who believed that HIV was transmitted through normal social contact wanted to avoid contact with people with HIV/AIDS, and showed other negative attitudes, such as lack of sympathy and blame. They also believed that their health was influenced by powerful others and chance. The findings are discussed in terms of fear of contracting HIV and the tendency to blame the victim.     

Career exploration: Work-role salience,work preferences,beliefs, and behavior

Career exploration was investigated in two studies, each using a longitudinal design. Relationships were observed among work-role salience, work preferences, beliefs about exploration, and exploratory behaviors that suggest career exploration is as much a motivational process as a behavioral one. In Study 1, work-role salience, and to a lesser extent work preferences, was significantly related to beliefs in the instrumentality of exploration and the importance of obtaining one's preferred position. In Study 2, exploration instrumentalities and the importance of obtaining one's preferred position were significantly related to exploratory behavior and the amount of information obtained. Gender was also related to beliefs regarding the instrumentality of exploration, with women indicating greater search instrumentality than men.     

Scales for Measuring Fear of AIDS and Homophobia

Two scales, one for measuring attitudes toward the fear of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and one for measuring attitude toward homosexuality, were constructed using Thurstone's method of equal-appearing intervals. After construction, the scales were given to 528 students at the University of Texas at Austin in the fail of 1985 to determine their respective reliabilities. Factor analyses were also done to determine what factors underlie the attitudes measured by the two scales and to determine if fear of AIDS and homophobia are in fact simply two facets of the same attitude: fear of homosexuals. The results indicated high reliabilities of both scales and a relatively low correlation between the two scales suggesting that the scales do measure different attitudes.     

Partner's understanding of affective–cognitive meta‐bases predicts relationship quality

Knowledge that partners have about each other's attitudes are consequential for relationship quality. This article extends prior research and examines whether knowledge regarding a partner's meta‐attitudinal bases, or subjective perceptions of how one's attitudes are driven, can influence relationship quality. Given how meta‐bases are reflective of information‐processing goals, we hypothesized that partner understanding of meta‐attitudinal bases would positively predict relationship quality. Self and partner ratings of how relationally relevant attitudes were driven, as well as perceptions of relationship quality, were assessed. Results revealed that a partner's knowledge of one's meta‐bases positively predicts one's own reported relationship quality. Results remained significant when controlling for relationship duration and meta‐bases similarity. Implications of meta‐bases understanding for close relationship functioning are discussed.