EFFECTS OF PICTURE PROMPTS ON THE ACQUISITION OF COMPLEX VOCATIONAL TASKS BY MENTALLY RETARDED ADOLESCENTS

The effects of using picture prompts on the acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of complex vocational tasks were evaluated within a multiple baseline design across subjects and tasks. Five moderately and severely mentally retarded adolescents were first trained to use picture prompts to guide their performance on one or more complex tasks. Following training, posttesting with and without the picture prompts was conducted to evaluate the effects of training and to determine maintenance effects over a 2- to 4-week interval. Generalization of performance across tasks was assessed with three of the students who were provided novel tasks (with and without picture prompts) without training. Results indicated that picture prompts can be successfully used to promote both acquisition and generalization of performance, and that subsequent training time on a novel task was reduced when the use of picture prompts had been previously trained.     

REDUCING DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIORS OF ELEMENTARY PHYSICAL EDUCATION STUDENTS WITH SIT AND WATCH

This study reduced the disruptive behaviors of students in two elementary physical education classes: a regular fourth-grade class comprised of 30 students and an alternative education class containing 14 fourth- and fifth-grade boys with severe behavior problems. Using a multiple baseline design, we introduced a modified time-out procedure called “Sit and Watch.” The procedure reduced the frequency of disruptive behaviors by 95%. Sit and Watch proved to be socially acceptable to parents, school personnel, and the physical education teacher.     

THE EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK ON BLOOD PRESSURE DISCRIMINATION

Discrimination of blood pressure in the natural environment as a function of feedback was assessed. Seventeen normotensives screened for blood pressure lability were randomly assigned to two groups. These subjects were then asked to estimate their systolic and diastolic blood pressure values two times per day over a 4-week period. Feedback for accuracy of blood pressure discriminations was implemented across the two groups in a multiple baseline fashion, using a feedback withdrawal condition in Group I to assess maintenance effects over time. Results showed improvement in discrimination accuracy for subjects in both groups when feedback was used, and no decrement in performance over a 2-week period after feedback was removed for subjects in Group I. Discrimination of systolic pressures improved at a slightly faster rate than discrimination of diastolic pressures.     

ON THE RELATIVE REINFORCING EFFECTS OF CHOICE AND DIFFERENTIAL CONSEQUENCES

Research on the reinforcing effects of providing choice-making opportunities to individuals with developmental disabilities (i.e., allowing them to choose reinforcers or tasks) has produced inconsistent results, perhaps because the mechanisms underlying such effects remain unclear. Choice may produce a reinforcement effect because it is correlated with differential consequences (i.e., choice may increase one's access to higher preference stimuli), or it may have reinforcement value independent of (or in addition to) the chosen stimulus. In Experiment 1, we used a concurrent-operants arrangement to assess preference for a choice condition (in which participants selected one of two available reinforcers) relative to a no-choice condition (in which the therapist selected the same reinforcers on a yoked schedule). All 3 participants preferred the choice option. In Experiment 2, we altered the schedules so that the participant selected one of two lower preference reinforcers in the choice condition, whereas the therapist selected a higher preference stimulus for the participant either half or all of the time in the no-choice condition. Participants typically allowed the therapist to select reinforcers for them (i.e., they allocated responding to the no-choice condition) when it resulted in greater access to higher preference stimuli.     

THE EFFECTS OF CONSUMER CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPE OF EMPLOYMENT MODEL ON INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES IN SUPPORTED EMPLOYMENT

Although recent federal legislation has led to a proliferation of supported employment programs throughout the country, little information is available that documents the success of these programs. In the present study, we examined the effect of different consumer characteristics and alternative supported employment service delivery models on key employment outcomes including hourly wage, hours worked per week, increase in earnings after supported employment participation, and level of integration on the job. The employment outcomes of a sample of 1,550 individuals receiving supported employment services through 96 local programs in eight states were analyzed to determine the effects of the key independent variables of primary disability and type of employment model. Results indicate that all groups of individuals, regardless of their primary disability, benefited significantly from supported employment participation. Further, data indicate that the individual placement model generated employment outcomes superior to those resulting from group employment options, particularly work crews. Implications of the results for future program development activities are discussed.     

风险偏好与框架效应对大学生职业决策的影响

在应用Hsee等设计的风险偏好水平问卷对46名大学生进行分组的基础上,通过设计职业决策情境,探究了当代大学生职业决策与其风险偏好、职业方案以及方案的框架性倾向之间的关系。研究结果表明：（1）高风险偏好大学生的职业选择倾向明显高于低风险偏好的大学生,尤其对冒险职业方案的选择中,上述趋势最为明显;（2）框架效应存在于大学生职业决策情境中,他们更倾向于选择采用积极口吻表述的职业方案;（3）大学生对冒险、折中、保守三种方案的职业选择倾向有显著地逐渐增大的趋势。     

THE EFFECTS OF CHOICE AND TASK PREFERENCE ON THE WORK PERFORMANCE OF ADULTS WITH SEVERE DISABILITIES

We evaluated the effects of choice versus the assignment of tasks of varying preferences on the work engagement of adults with severe disabilities. The combined results of two experiments suggest that the relative preference for a task may be an important variable in the effectiveness of choice for some individuals.     

EFFECTS OF EXTINCTION ALONE AND EXTINCTION PLUS FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING ON COVARIATION OF PROBLEM BEHAVIORS

In this investigation, extinction (EXT) was applied alone or in combination with functional communication training (FCT) to less severe topographies of problem behavior while more severe topographies continued to be reinforced. EXT alone decreased less severe and increased more severe topographies of problem behavior (i.e., response covariation), whereas EXT with FCT reduced all topographies of problem behavior to near-zero levels.     

THE EFFECTS OF SELF-MONITORING AND SUPERVISOR FEEDBACK ON STAFF PERFORMANCE IN A RESIDENTIAL SETTING

We evaluated the effects of a self-monitoring procedure to increase staff on-task behavior and adherence to scheduled activities. Self-monitoring involved the use of activity cards that staff members completed and carried with them to assist in determining the activities for which they were responsible at any given time. Increases in both on-schedule and on-task behavior resulted. Supervisor feedback was subsequently added because some staff members did not maintain consistently high levels of performance. Generalization data indicated that staff members implemented the procedure during evening hours without specific programming. The advantages and limitations of using a self-monitoring procedure for improving performance of staff members in residential settings are discussed.     

THE EFFECTS OF PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK ON THE SAFETY OF CLIENT LIFTING AND TRANSFER

Individual written and verbal performance feedback was examined to determine its influence on the safety with which physically disabled clients were transferred. Two client-transfer techniques were task analyzed and six direct service providers' on-the-job performance was measured weekly. A multiple baseline across settings and subjects was used to evaluate effects of the feedback. Consumer satisfaction and the costs of the procedures were also assessed. Results showed that feedback was consistently followed by improvements in safe performance. These improvements tended to maintain as feedback was faded. Participants favorably rated the feedback procedure and consistently recommended its use with other staff.     

ATTENTION TRAINING: THE USE OF OVERCORRECTION AVOIDANCE TO INCREASE THE EYE CONTACT OF AUTISTIC AND RETARDED CHILDREN

A crucial first step in teaching and training the retarded and autistic is to develop and maintain eye contact with the therapist. Functional movement training (an overcorrection procedure) plus edibles and praise were compared with edibles and praise alone as a method of developing eye contact in three such children. In both conditions, the child was given food and praise when eye contact occurred within 5 sec of the therapist's verbal prompt: “Look at me.” Functional movement training avoidance plus edibles and praise produced about 90% attention for the three children, while edibles and praise alone were less effective (eye contact never exceeded 55%). Functional movement training avoidance combined with edibles and praise appears to be an effective method of teaching eye contact and possibly other forms of instruction-following to behaviorally disordered children who are not always responsive to positive consequences.     

PROCEDURAL VARIATIONS IN GROUP CONTINGENCIES: EFFECTS ON CHILDREN'S ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL BEHAVIORS

There has been little research on the effects of the many procedural variables in applied group contingencies. In the present study, an individualized contingency and three group contingencies with different “responder” criteria (e.g., reward based on the group average, reward based on the work of a designated, low-achieving student, or reward based on the work of a randomly selected student) were applied to the academic work of primary grade children in a learning disabilities classroom. Group social interaction during each contingency was measured systematically. Although there were large individual differences in students' academic and social responses to the different contingencies, some consistent effects were observed. Two of the four low-achieving target students did their best academic work during the group contingency which focused on their performance as a designated responder. This type of contingency also produced high levels of positive social interaction in three of four groups of children observed.     

POSITIVE PEER PRESSURE: THE EFFECTS OF PEER MONITORING ON CHILDREN'S DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR

Classroom peers can serve as powerful sources of reinforcement in increasing or maintaining both the positive and negative behaviors of their classmates. In two experiments, we examined the effectiveness of a peer-monitored token system on reducing disruption and nonparticipation during a transition period of a kindergarten class for behaviorally impaired children. Additionally, the effect of providing and subsequently withholding corrective feedback to peer mediators on the accuracy of their point awards was evaluated. Results in Experiment 1 suggest that both teacher-and peer-monitored interventions were successful in decreasing disruption and increasing participation of monitored peers. Experiment 2 further demonstrated that peer monitors could successfully initiate the token system without prior adult implementation. Analysis of the point awards in both experiments indicates that peer monitors consistently awarded points that were earned. However, when corrective feedback was withdrawn the peer monitors frequently awarded points that were not earned, i.e., they rarely withheld points for undesirable behavior. Even so, the monitored peers' disruptive behavior was maintained at low rates.     

EFFECTS OF A VOICE OUTPUT COMMUNICATION AID ON INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SUPPORT PERSONNEL AND AN INDIVIDUAL WITH MULTIPLE DISABILITIES

We evaluated a means of increasing staff members' interactions with an individual with multiple disabilities through use of a voice output communication aid (VOCA). When activated, the VOCA allowed the individual to communicate through synthesized speech. Results indicated that staff members interacted with the individual more frequently when she had access to the VOCA, suggesting that VOCAs may represent an alternative to more traditional staff management programs for increasing interactions.     

WHEN COWORKERS AND MANAGERS QUIT: THE EFFECTS OF TURNOVER AND SHARED VALUES ON PERFORMANCE

We examined the relationship between work unit, direct management, and overall management turnover and performance improvement following an intervention in fifty work units in multiple organizations in eight countries. Direct management turnover was negatively related to performance improvement, while work unit and overall management turnover were not. We also investigated shared values as a moderator of the turnover-performance relationship and found that high shared values buffered the negative effect of overall management turnover on performance improvement. The results are noteworthy, as they point to the importance of examining turnover at different organizational levels and identifying moderators of the turnover-performance relationship.

EFFECTS OF REINFORCER QUALITY ON BEHAVIORAL MOMENTUM: COORDINATED APPLIED AND BASIC RESEARCH

The high-probability (high-p) instructional sequence has been an effective treatment for noncompliance. However, treatment failures have also been reported. We hypothesized that the efficacy of the high-p treatment may be improved by using higher quality reinforcers for compliance to high-p instructions. The resistance of compliance to change was tested by varying reinforcer quality in two applied studies and a basic laboratory experiment. Experiment 1 tested the hypothesis that an increase in reinforcer quality for high-p compliance will increase the effectiveness of the high-p treatment when it fails to increase compliance. Experiment 2 assessed the effects of reinforcer quality on resistance of compliance to change by presenting successive low-p requests following the high-p treatment. A basic laboratory study (Experiment 3) was conducted to further isolate the relation between reinforcer quality and behavioral momentum. Two different liquid reinforcers (sucrose and citric acid solutions) were presented in a two-component multiple variable-interval variable-interval schedule followed by a single extinction test session. Results of all three experiments showed a generally consistent relationship between reinforcer quality and behavioral momentum.     

POSITIVE PRACTICE OVERCORRECTION: THE EFFECTS OF DURATION OF POSITIVE PRACTICE ON ACQUISITION AND RESPONSE REDUCTION

The effects of long and short durations of positive practice overcorrection were studied, for reduction of off-task behavior after an instruction to perform an object-placement task. Off-task behavior, correct responses, and approximate responses were all observed. Off-task behavior received positive practice. The short and long practice durations (30 seconds and 3 minutes) produced equally rapid reduction of off-task behavior and acquisition of correct object-placement performance. Over sessions, much less time was required for positive practice when the short practice duration was used. Approximate responses, which also avoided positive practice, occurred at low rates relative to correct responding. Negative side effects were observed to occur primarily during sessions with long positive practice. These results indicate that use of short durations of positive practice can reduce the practice time required and negative side effects, with no loss of training effectiveness either for reducing inappropriate behavior or increasing a desired alternative behavior.     

三维物体图形的大小和颜色影响内隐和外显记忆的实验研究

本研究探索非言语信息的内隐记忆。用新异的不熟悉的三维物体图形作为实验材料,物体决定测验评价内隐记忆,是/否再认测验评价外显记忆,操纵学习(?)测验间物体图形的颜色(实验一)和大小(实验二),80名被试参加实验一,另80名参加实验二。结果发现:(1)存在着非言语信息的内隐记忆,且与外显记忆相分离;(2)新异的不熟悉三维物体的颜色和大小由外显记忆的情节系统所表征,而非属于结构表征系统,从而支持多重记忆系统假说。     

EFFECTS OF SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL TRAINING ON SECOND- AND THIRD-GRADE HYPERACTIVE CHILDREN: A FAILURE TO REPUCATE

Bornstein and Quevillon (1976) demonstrated generalization from a 2-hour self-instructional training session to on-task behavior in the classroom with 4-year-old overactive children. In an attempt to replicate this work with older children, eight 7- and 8-year-old hyperactive children were assigned to either a self-instructional training group or an attention-practice control group. On-task behavior in the classroom and performance measures in reading and arithmetic were assessed. The level of difficulty of these tasks was varied. The results of Bornstein and Quevillon's (1976) study were not replicated, although the subsequent introduction of a token program significantly increased on-task behavior.