Assessment of adult relatedness: a review of empirical findings from object relations and attachment theories

Assessment techniques designed to measure adult behavior and mental representation that emphasize relatedness constructs are reviewed. These measures grow out of two traditions, object relations and attachment theories. Although these two paradigms are fairly well elucidated theoretically, the relevant assessment literature is only more recently expanding, especially that focusing directly on adult attachment as opposed to childhood attachment. In addition to a presentation of various projective and objective measures, this review highlights the clinical and research implications for integration of these two paradigms around the cognitive, affective, and behavioral vicissitudes of adult relatedness.     

The limitations of the object relations model

The position expressed in this paper is that there is no drive without object, and no object relationship except in the context of the drives. If primacy is to be attributed to any of the factors involved in mental functioning, it should be to the workings of the pleasure-unpleasure principle; the latter cannot be conceived as independent of the realm of the drives. A clinical case is presented in order to demonstrate why and to what extent it can be severely restrictive to attribute ultimate motivating primacy to a hypothetical object-seeking tendency conceived of as operating outside the sphere of the drives.     

The clinical popularity of object relations concepts

Object relations theory has the effect of supporting the psychoanalyst when he feels that the patient's effort is strongly opposed to his own. The current popularity of object relations theory may be related to the gradual disappearance from Freudian theory of a simple, clear image of an obligatory insistence by the patient that is useful even though it is unreflective. Object relations theory offers the practitioner a way of fortifying himself against blind demand, while newer Freudian theorists cope with the problem by orienting themselves more stringently toward the original paradigm of optional choice.     

On internal object relations

This paper gives an account of the author's attempts to come to terms with the concept of internal object relations, and to find an appropriate theoretical place for it within non-Kleinian mainstream theory. It is proposed that the internal object be regarded as a structure in the nonexperimental realm, being built up during development on the basis of the child's subjective perceptual and fantasy experiences. The internal objects in turn influence perception, thought, fantasy, current object relations, and transference. From the point of view of the clinician, the concepts of internal object and of internal object relation act as useful organizing constructs for both analyst and patient. Finally, the suggestion is made that internal objects can be regarded as the source of internal "presences" with which the person constantly unconsciously interacts.     

Intertheory relations from unified theories

The concept of unified theory is defined in logical and abstract semantic terms, and employed in the analysis of relations between empirical scientific theories. The conceptual framework of the approach applies to binary relations such as the reduction or replacement of one theory by another, and to multiple intertheory relations. Historically, unified theories tend to arise within the contexts of scientific conflicts which they may show susceptible of solution even in the most controversial cases of the logical incompatibility or conceptual incommensurability of competing theories. These conclusions are exemplified by the Planck-Einstein quantum theory of thermal radiation. The analysis shows in which sense it can, and in which it cannot, be said that this theory unifies Wien's law and the Rayleigh-Jeans law of black-body radiation.     

The Freudian superego

Beginning psychotherapists tend to judge themselves in terms of their Freudian superego, their idea of how a stereotypical classical analyst is supposed to work. This Freudian superego derives from culturally prevalent negative stereotypes about the nature of Freudian psychoanalysis.     

Empirical and clinical assessments of children's object relations and object representations.

A series of investigations that assess children's object representations using the Rorschach Mutuality of Autonomy (MOA) Scale are reviewed. The scale is viewed as a summary measure of a child's repertoire of previous interpersonal interactions. It has been effective in delineating qualitative aspects of a number of child psychopathological syndromes, in documenting short-term object representational shifts in children undergoing surgery, and in foretelling key paradigms in child psychotherapy. This effectiveness provides empirical support for the hypothesized salience of object representations as an integral facet of personality and affirms Escalona's (1968) contention that capturing a child's phenomenological experience enhances our capacity to predict later outcome.     

The role of the object in drive cathexis and psychosexual development.

Alternate axes are explored in the orthodox formulation of drive cathexis and psychosexual development, with implications for corresponding object relation modes engendered by these processes. Somatic and defensive aspects are shown to impact on the function of the "other" as the individual matures. The separation/individuation process is subsumed into this overall developmental continuum, and the centrality of the object as a focus in cathexis and drive delineation is critically evaluated. The homeostatic notion of equilibration is appealed to in synthesizing the factors emerging from the analysis.     

Renewal of object relations through dream-work

In this paper I describe my work with a suicidal patient. The patient was a woman who failed to realize her creative potential in a much wished for and unattainable profession of teacher and transferred all her energy and desire for leadership into her family life. The slogan of her life was the pathetic phrase: 'Everything or nothing!' Her views on life differed from those of her husband who, at the age of 48, started a love affair with a 25-year-old woman. In relation to this, the patient became depressed and attempted suicide twice (by poisoning) in two years. From the Toxicology Department she was referred to the Psychiatric Department where she was treated as an out-patient.     

The capacity to forgive: An object relations perspective

Forgiveness is commended by Christianity, as well as other religious traditions, as one of the most central of virtues, so central that the New Testament links man's very salvation to his ability to forgive. However, mental health professionals have correctly pointed out that the mandate to forgive is often used by religious patients in the service of defenses such as reaction formation, undoing, and denial. The forgiveness ideal is often misunderstood as a command not to experience aggressive feelings.It is the thesis of this paper that the capacity for genuine forgiveness is central not only to spiritual development but to psychological development as well. It is suggested that Kernberg's object relations theory provides the best model for understanding the nature and importance of forgiveness. Mature forgiveness does not involve the elimination of negative feelings toward others (or oneself) but the integration of negative and positive self-object representations and their connected affect. Anger at the offending persons must then be tempered by appreciation for their concomitant good qualities and motivations or, at the very least, empathy for the flaws which prompted them to behave destructively. The result is a more realistic and balanced view of others (and oneself), a more genuine relationship to the full range of one's own inner experience, and a greater ability to respond constructively to frustrating persons and situations.This paper was presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association in New York in August 1987. The author wishes to thank Mark Finn, Ph.D., and David Hamblin, Ph.D., for their valuable discussions in the development of the ideas in the paper. Address requests for reprints to Dr. Gartner, Dept. of Pastoral Counseling, Loyola College, 7135 Mistrel Way, Columbia, MD 21045.     

Structural conflict and object relations conflict.

A hierarchical model of the mind is required for a more integrated understanding of psychic conflict. At a higher developmental level, the hierarchical model includes the tripartite model, and at a lower level it includes an object-relations model. Psychic conflicts may be classified into object relations conflicts and structural conflicts. The object-relations class of psychic conflict covers the phase of psychic development prior to id-ego-superego differentiation. The earlier psychoanalytic writings tended to ascribe all kinds of symptoms, conflicts, and disorders to structural conflicts. Logical and empirical evidence against the universality of structural conflicts in various disorders and symptoms, even psychoneurotic symptoms, has been summarized and discussed.