Sex-role differences in time use

Analysis of how men and women spend their time reveals much about patterns of underlying sex-role relationships. This article examines national sample data on time use by men and women in order to determine systematic sex differences in the division of work and leisure in society. Particular attention is directed to how time-use patterns shift as both paid work and marital and family burdens are added to the woman's role. To determine time use, subjects kept diaries of their activities for a particular day. In addition, attitude questions about time use were also analyzed. Paid employment was found to constrain the free time of women far more than any other single role factor, including marriage and parenthood. Consequently, employed married women have significantly less free time than do employed men or women not in the labor force. While the free time of a married woman with children decreases when she becomes employed, a husband's free time may actually increase with his wife's employment. Nevertheless, few women indicated that they would like more help with housework and child care from their husbands. Several explanations for women's resistance to more male help are examined. Implications of these results for the career development of employed women and for future changes in marital role relationships are discussed.     

Family planning and maternal health care in Egypt

The Government of Egypt is introducing policies to reduce the mortality of women of reproductive age. However, family planning and maternal-child health care programs are unlikely to have the desired impact without corresponding improvements in the status of Egyptian women. Women's status in the areas of education, health, poverty, employment, the family, government, and the community is a crucial determinant of their willingness and ability to accept a smaller family size ideal and become contraceptive users. At present, only 6% of Egyptian women are a part of the work force and 60% are illiterate. In a society in which women are valued on the basis of the number of children they produce for their husbands, those practice birth control risk abandonment and isolation. The powerlessness and insecurity that lead Egyptian women to have an average of at least 5 children impeded national development and thus delay creation of the socioeconomic conditions that could liberate women from their domestic role. Equal opportunities in education and employment would represent a first step toward improving women's status by giving them a source of income and increased independence. Also needed are modifications in archaic marriage, divorce, and custody laws.     

Preschool child care and parents' use of physical discipline

Parenting practices, including the use of physical discipline, are shaped by multiple influences. Although much research focuses on how parent, child, and dyadic characteristics shape parenting practices, extra‐familial resources may also play a role. This paper focuses on how children's experiences of child care during the preschool years may affect one aspect of parenting—discipline practices. Using a rich, nationally representative data set, we explore the correlation between children's participation in centre based care, Head Start, or other non‐parental care arrangements and parents' use of physical discipline, and related phenomena, parents' experience of domestic violence and parenting stress. We conduct probit regressions of parents' use of physical discipline, and parents' experiences of domestic violence, on preschool child care experiences. For disadvantaged groups of children, who have higher risks of experiencing physical discipline and witnessing family violence, we find that Head Start participation is associated with an increase in the likelihood that parents say they never spank their children and reduction in reports of domestic violence. And, for children in two‐parent families, Head Start is associated with an increase in the likelihood that parents say they never spank their children and the likelihood that they do not say they would resort to spanking in a hypothetical situation. However, we find no evidence that non‐parental child care is associated with a lasting reduction in parenting stress. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Perceptions of High-Risk Care and Barriers to Care Among Women at Risk for Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer following Genetic Counseling in the Community Setting

Data are limited regarding barriers to care among women, with or at risk for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC), following genetic counseling in the community setting. Using a telephone survey, we retrospectively addressed perceptions of post-genetic counseling medical care and barriers to care among 69 at-risk women from the non-academic setting. Of these, all agreed that following cancer screening recommendations was better than not following them; none felt recommendations were too difficult to follow; all believed screening would help keep them healthy; 57% believed screening would prevent cancer. Twenty-five percent noted discomfort with breast imaging; 29% found ovarian cancer screening uncomfortable. Close to a quarter of participants reported difficulty deciding whether or not to undergo risk-reducing mastectomy while 10% noted difficulty deciding for or against bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy. There were no perceived major barriers to care, although 38% felt that screening reminders would be helpful, and 10% needed more help in following through with care. Overall, participants believed that they were benefiting from their post-genetic counseling medical care. This work identified HBOC-related support needs to include: informational resources that promote improved understanding of cancer risk and high-risk management; screening reminder systems; and decision support tools.     

Family Gender Role and Guilt in Spanish Dual-Earner Families

In dual-earner families the balance between work and family demands facilitates the development of guilt feelings when parents perceive a non-fulfillment of their responsibilities in childcare. Specifically, women who aspire to personal and professional development on the basis of more egalitarian gender role models must deal with the traditional stereotypes that maintain an intensive maternity mandate that prioritizes the family. On the other hand, for men the role change is primarily in the family setting with the development of a new father role more involved in the care of their children, which is not easily compatible with the more traditional breadwinner role. This study explored the feelings of guilt about parenting in 251 employed Spanish parents with children between 3 and 6 years of age, through the Scale of Guilt Feelings about Parenting, and its relationship with traditional stereotypes of maternal and family role. The scale addresses diverse situations pertaining to child rearing in which work requirements do not allow parents full availability for the care of their children. This availability is present in the model of intensive maternity and in the new father role model. Results indicate the presence of similar and high levels of guilt in fathers and mothers, although in men guilt is related to a non-traditional family role ideology, whereas in women guilt is related to a more traditional maternal role stereotype.     

The Michigan infant mental health home visiting model

Selma Fraiberg's pioneering work with infants, toddlers, and families over 40 years ago led to the development of a field in which professionals from multiple disciplines learned to work with or on behalf of infants, very young children, their parents, and the relationships that bind them together. The intent was to promote social and emotional health through enhancing the security of early developing parent–child relationships in the first years of life (Fraiberg, 2018). Called infant mental health (IMH), practitioners from fields of health, education, social work, psychology, human development, nursing, pediatrics, and psychiatry specialize in supporting the optimal development of infants and the developing relationship between infants and their caregivers. When a baby is born into optimal circumstances, to parents free of undue economic and psychological stressors and who are emotionally ready to provide care and nurturing for an infant's needs, an IMH approach may be offered as promotion or prevention, with the goal of supporting new parent(s) in developing confidence in their capacity to understand and meet the needs of the tiny human they are coming to know and care for. However, when parental history is fraught with abandonment, loss, abuse or neglect, or the current environment is replete with economic insecurity, threats to survival due to interpersonal or community violence, social isolation, mental illness, or substance abuse, the work of the IMH therapist may require intervention or intensive treatment and becomes more psychotherapeutic in nature. The underlying therapeutic goal is to create a context in which the baby develops within the environment of a parent's nurturing care without the psychological impingement that parental history of trauma or loss or current stressors such as isolation, poverty, or the birth of a child with special needs, can incur.     

A new approach for training infant intervention specialists

This paper describes a new approach to training infant specialists. A joint Master's degree program, based in graduate schools of public health and education, emphasizes cross-disciplinary coursework in maternal and child health and special education. The program emphasizes the importance of forging crucial linkages among the different disciplines and agencies that care for handicapped and at-risk infants. The program emphasizes improved skills in assessing, planning, and intervening on behalf of infants at risk for developmental delays or with severe or multiple handicaps; the ability to work with families; and the ability to develop and appraise community resources.     

Biblical and Theological Perspectives on Children,Parents, and ‘Best Practices' for Faith Formation: Resources for Child,Youth, and Family Ministry Today

Abstract : One of the most important ways to strengthen the faith formation of children and young people, and child, youth, and family ministries is by engaging and supporting parents or primary care‐givers. This article seeks to address this challenge by mining resources from the Bible and Christian theology about the roles and responsibilities of parents, the complexity and dignity of children, and ways to pass on the faith. By taking into account theological perspectives on parents, children, and faith formation, church leaders can better engage both children and parents, and they can strengthen all areas of their work with or on behalf of children and young people, whether in children's ministry, youth and family ministry, religious education, or child advocacy.     

EMPLOYER SUPPORTED CHILD CARE, WORK/ FAMILY CONFLICT, AND ABSENTEEISM: A FIELD STUDY

This study examined the relations among employer supported child care, work/family conflict and absenteeism. No support was found for the hypothesis that use of a child care center at work would reduce the amount of work/family conflict and absenteeism of employed parents. Consistent with our hypotheses, the results indicated that supportive supervision and satisfaction with child care arrangements (regardless of location) were related to less work/family conflict. Further, it was found that less work/family conflict was related to lower levels of absenteeism. The results have implications for the role of employers in addressing child care concerns of employees.     

A caregiver–child socioemotional and relationship rating scale

This article reports the construction and pilot reliability, validity, and psychometric properties of a new caregiver–child rating scale that emphasizes caregiver–child socioemotional interactions and relationships. While the scale was developed and studied in orphanages for young children, it potentially could be used in nonresidential early care and education settings as well as for parent–child interactions in the home. The intent was to assess a few dimensions that comprehensively cover the range of caregiver–child socioemotional interactions and relationships, by means of a scale that could be administered in a relatively short time period in a variety of situations and would not require extensive coder training, manuals, or materials. Results showed that the scale can be reliably administered even using observation periods as short as 5 min, that inter‐rater reliability was acceptable (based on data from two raters working in two orphanages, and five raters working in another), and that ratings of caregivers were similar across different types of caregiving activities (i.e., feeding, dressing/bathing, free play) and for caregivers attending to children birth to 4 and 4 to 8 years of age. In the orphanage context, factor analyses showed that the scale primarily reflects caregiver–child mutual engagement and relationship with subordinate components of caregiver punitiveness and caregiver‐ versus child‐directed behaviors and intrusiveness.     

Family,friend, and neighbour child care providers and maternal well‐being in low‐income systems: An ecological social perspective

Integrating theory from the family ecological systems and social support literatures with findings from child care research, in this study we develop and test a model relating family, friend, and neighbour (FFN) child care provider characteristics to perceived child care quality (provider reports of caregiving behaviours, mother‐provider caregiving relationship) and maternal well‐being (work‐family conflict, depressive symptoms). Results from phone interviews with 187 FFN providers receiving public subsidies indicated that even after controlling for familial status or household income, caregiver perceptions of higher quality care were associated with higher education levels, greater attachment to child care as a job; and lower provider depressive symptoms. After controlling for familial status, data analysed from a subset of 51 mother‐provider pairs, indicated that mothers using care from providers who reported higher quality parent‐caregiver social relationships reported lower work‐family conflict and depressive symptoms. This study suggests mothers who have providers with whom they have good caregiving interactions may experience positive social support and psychological crossover dynamics associated with mother well‐being.     

Understanding of Genetic Inheritance among Xhosa-Speaking Caretakers of Children with Hemophilia

Hemophilia A and B are X-linked recessive inherited bleeding disorders that have a profound impact on the family of affected individuals. Education is vital to enable women to appreciate the implications of being a carrier and the implications for a prospective child. Prior research has shown that cultural, socio-economic and linguistic issues in South Africa are major barriers to communication for first-language Xhosa-speakers. This exploratory study aimed to investigate the basic knowledge of genetic inheritance among this cultural group in order to promote culturally-sensitive, effective genetic counseling. Ten in-depth interviews were conducted with Xhosa-speaking mothers or caregivers of boys with hemophilia. Results suggest that the participants had a very limited understanding of the clinical management, genetic consequences and cause of hemophilia. While treatment and care by health care service providers was fully accepted, several participants believed that traditional methods would provide them with more satisfactory explanations. These findings suggest that there is a critical need for socio-culturally tailored, language-specific education for families with hemophilia.     

Wrestling with the future: should we test children for adult-onset genetic conditions?

Genetics professionals have been reluctant to test children for adult-onset conditions because they believe this would create psychosocial harm to children not counterbalanced by significant benefits. An additional concern they express is that such testing would violate the autonomy of these children as adults. Yet weighing the harms and benefits of such testing results in a draw, with no substantial harms proven. Moreover, such testing can enhance, rather than violate the adult autonomy of these children. In deciding whether to proceed with predictive testing of children, parents, mature children, and health care professionals should consider a complex of factors relevant to the particular child. The importance of these factors will vary depending on the condition at issue, the age and stage of development of the child, family dynamics, and the concerns, values, and objectives of the parents and mature child. The final decision whether to test a child for an adult-onset condition should rest with the parents and the mature child.     

The quality of caregiving in child care: relations to teacher complexity of thinking and perceived supportiveness of the work environment

This study examined the relationship between the complexity of thinking about children by child care teachers and observed teachers' caregiving for infants and toddlers. It was hypothesized that the perceived supportiveness of the work environment would affect this relationship. Fifty‐six child care teachers completed a survey assessing complexity of thinking about children's behaviour as well as a measure of the perceived opportunities for professional development. Teachers' quality of caregiving was assessed using the Caregiver Interaction Scale. Planned contrasts revealed that when professional development opportunities were perceived unfavourably, teachers who were complex in thinking about children's behaviour provided significantly more sensitive care than did teachers who were less complex in their thinking. Findings indicate that the complexity of teachers' thinking about children may be very important in understanding teacher's sensitivity when the quality of the work environment is poor. High‐quality work environments may buffer teachers with less complexity of thinking from being less sensitive with children. Efforts to improve quality of care could focus on individual teachers to improve their complexity of thinking as well as on the work environment to make it more supportive of teachers' professional development. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Family Care Behaviors and Early Childhood Development in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Epidemiological evidence linking early childhood development (ECD) with family care behaviors is limited. This study assessed relationships of ECD with family care behaviors and child nutritional status in 77,315 children 36–59 months from 26 low- and middle-income countries from the Multiple Cluster Indicator Surveys round 4. We used UNICEF-recommended indicators for literacy–numeracy and learning development. Family care behaviors measured were provision of books and play materials, inadequate care, activities of adult caregivers with child, father’s involvement, attendance to early childhood education program, and violent discipline. Nutritional status was measured by height-for-age z-scores. Three-level linear mixed-model regression analysis was done separately for each ECD outcome. Both developmental domains were associated with family care behaviors, with strongest associations between literacy–numeracy and program attendance, provision of books, and stimulating activities. Differences in the proportion on track for literacy–numeracy were 0.176–0.277 for these three family care behaviors. The multivariable model controlling for maternal education and wealth showed that children with provision of books, program attendance, and four stimulating activities had a proportion of being on track for literac–numeracy that was 0.427 higher than children without these. Higher height-for-age was associated with higher prevalence of being on track for literacy–numeracy and learning development. This study provides epidemiological evidence on the importance of family care behaviors for ECD. ECD could be substantially fostered by interventions that promote appropriate family care behaviors and resources for learning stimulation even in contexts of socioeconomic and educational disadvantage.     

Sex differences in bases of power in dating relationships

The relationships between relative and absolute contributions of resources and perceiving oneself as being powerful in the dating relationship were examined for 50 dating couples. Unlike past research examining resources as bases of power, a wide range of resources was examined—including more traditional “feminine” resources such as affection and companionship. Also unlike past studies, perceived contributions of resources, rather than the control of resources, were examined. How access to alternative relationships relates to power was also examined in this study. Contrary to research examining control of resources, it was found in this study that contributing more to the relationship tended to be negatively correlated with perceiving oneself as having power. Closer analysis revealed that this was particularly true for traditionally feminine resources. It was also found that the more men perceived themselves as having access to alternatives, the more powerful they perceived themselves. For women, on the other hand, an important basis of power appeared to be the control of the reciprocation of love in the relationship.     

“Who Cares for the Children?” Lessons from a Global Perspective of Child Care Policy

We present the argument that the meaning of child care and the policies that address it are explicitly linked with national ideologies, work force participation, economic success, and child outcomes. The relationship between family and child care policies is cyclical in nature, with a nation’s ideology and vision of family often driving child care policies, while child care policies in turn drive and support a nation’s ideology. We examine the interrelatedness of child care policy and national ideologies of family in selected industrialized countries. Specifically, this paper first defines child care policy and discusses the national ideological frameworks that provide the impetus for child care policy formation and implementation. Second, the paper explores current child care policies and their connection to the historical and political context of several countries within, including France, Germany, Japan, South Korea, Belgium, the Nordic countries, and the United States. Lastly, recommendations are offered for the future of child care policy development with specific recommendations for child care policy development in the United States.     

Transforming the debate about child care and maternal employment.

Over the past two decades, the large-scale entrance of women into the work force has fundamentally changed the fabric of work and family life. Unlike 75 other nations, the United States has no comprehensive family policy that helps families cope with the competing demands of work and family. Research within psychology has not been helpful in pointing out the need for a major shift in public policy. This article argues that both governmental policy and psychological research reflect the popular culture's idealized myth of motherhood. It suggests an interruption of the research agenda that searches for negative consequences of maternal employment and alternative child care. A new agenda is proposed that would document the negative consequences of not providing high-quality, affordable day care. This new agenda would also acknowledge the centrality of fathers and family process to developmental outcomes in children.