Sex-role orientation,identity formation,and self-esteem in college men and women

Contrasting hypotheses that psychological androgyny (Bem, 1974, 1975) would be associated with (1) identity confusion and a lack of personal integration or (2) identity achievement and high levels of integration were tested. Sex-role orientation, ego-identity status, and self-esteem were determined for 111 college men and women. The results support the second hypothesis, that high levels of masculinity and femininity (androgynous orientation) are conducive to identity achievement and high self-esteem. In contrast, low levels of masculine and feminine characteristics (undifferentiated sex-role orientation) were associated with uniformly low self-esteem and a lack of personal integration (identity diffusion). Sex-typing was most often associated with premature identity commitments and a lack of personality differentiation (identity foreclosure) and with high self-esteem in males but low self-esteem in females. Cross-sex-typing was associated with high levels of self-esteem and identity achievement in females, but with somewhat lower self-esteem in males and either unsuccessful (diffusion) or transitional (moratorium) levels of identity resolution.This research was supported by University of Missouri Summer Research Fellowship 3694-1100. The author would like to express his gratitude to Mona Asbed, Richard Baker, Sheila Ginsburg, Keith Shaw, and Marsha Whitson for conducting and rating the identity status interviews.     

Adolescent identity formation: a Swedish study of identity status using the EOM-EIS-II

The aim of this study was to examine ego identity status among Swedish adolescents using the EOM-EIS-II. Identity status scores and distributions were examined for 222 (108 female, 114 male) Swedish high school students. Identity status differences were found between genders. There was a greater likelihood of female adolescents being categorized as moratoriums than were males, and there was a greater likelihood of males being categorized as diffusions than were females. Statistically significant differences were found between genders on the following subscales: moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion. No statistically significant differences were found between females and males on the identity achievement subscale. To achieve a preliminary construct validation of the results from the EOM-EIS-II, four of the 222 participants were also assessed using Marcia's identity status interview. A fairly good accordance between the interview assessment of identity status and the EOM-EIS-II assessment were found. Interview results showed differences between the interviewers on each subscale (IA, M, F, and D). The same differences were detected on three of four subscales when assessing these individuals' identity statuses using the EOM-EIS-II.     

Differential Factors Affecting Male and Female Academic Performance in High School

An attempt was made to explain the combined effect of several factors on academic performance and to explore whether this effect was different for males and females. The independent variables were achievement motive, locus of control, dependency, and sex; the dependent variable was cumulative grade point average. Ss were 365 male and female American high school students from grades 10 through 12. The highly achievement motivated, internal, low dependent, female students had significantly higher grades. There were also two significant sex interaction effects, indicating that some factors that influence achievement operate differently for males and females.     

Perceived social image and life satisfaction across cultures

We studied the relationship between perceived social image and life satisfaction in four different cultural groups. One-hundred nine Indian (63 females, 46 males), 67 Pakistani/Bangladeshi (36 females, 31 males), 76 White British (43 females, 33 males), and 94 European Americans (43 females, 48 males) completed measures on the cultural importance of social image, positive and negative emotions, academic achievement, and perceived social image. Indian and Pakistani/Bangladeshi participants valued social image more than White British and European-American participants. Consistent with this value difference, a positive perceived social image predicted life satisfaction among Indian and Pakistani/Bangladeshi participants only. For these participants, perceived social image predicted life satisfaction above and beyond the effects of emotions and academic achievement. Academic achievement only predicted life satisfaction among White British and European Americans. Emotions were significant predictors of life satisfaction for all participants.     

Sex differences in assertive achievement patterns

Observations in mathematics and social studies classrooms were made of 40 sixth-grade children of average and high ability to investigate whether males and females differ in assertive achievement behavior. The prediction of less assertive achievement behavior for females than males was supported only among average-ability children. Particularly in social studies, average-ability females participated less in the classroom than average-ability males and either high-ability males or females. Average-ability females' deficit of assertive behavior became more pronounced as the behavior category increased in degree of assertiveness. High-ability females demonstrated a deficit only in the most assertive behavior category.     

Psychosocial development, self-concept, and gender

Undergraduate students (N = 88; 51 males and 37 females) completed the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS; Fitts, 1965) and the identity versus identity diffusion and intimacy versus isolation scales from Constantinople's (1969) Inventory of Psychosocial Development (IPD). Strong positive correlations were found between ego identity and all aspects of self-concept for both males and females. Different results emerged for the intimacy versus isolation crisis, however. For males, all aspects of self-concept were related to a sense of intimacy, but for females intimacy was related only to the behavioral and interpersonal aspects of self-concept. The implications of these findings are discussed and the contingency of intimacy upon ego identity is questioned with regard to females.     

Gender differences in memory for objects and their locations: a study on automatic versus controlled encoding and retrieval contexts

Object-location memory is the only spatial task where female subjects have been shown to outperform males. This result is not consistent across all studies, and may be due to the combination of the multi-component structure of object location memory with the conditions under which different studies were done. Possible gender differences in object location memory and its component object identity memory were assessed in the present study. In order to disentangle these two components, an object location memory task (in which objects had to be relocated in daily environments), and a separate object identity recognition task were carried out. This study also focused on the conditions under which object locations were encoded and retrieved. Only half of the participants were aware of the fact that object locations had to be retrieved later on. Moreover, by applying the 'process dissociation procedure' to the object location memory assessments and the 'remember-know' paradigm to the object identity measure, the amount of explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) retrieval was estimated for each component. In general, females performed better than males on the object location memory task. However, when controlled for object identity memory, females no longer outperformed males, whereas they did not obtain a higher general object identity memory score, nor did they have more explicit or implicit recollection of the object identities. These complicated effects might stem from a difference between males and females, in the way locations or associations between objects and locations are retrieved. In general, participants had more explicit (conscious) recollection than implicit (unconscious) recollection. No effect of encoding context was found, nor any interaction effect of gender, encoding and retrieval context.     

Gender differences in autonomous and social achievement orientations

This research examined gender differences in orientations toward autonomous and social achievement. Three independent samples of subjects (total N= 359 males and 574 females) completed measures of achievement orientation (including Strumpfer's [1975] Autonomous Achievement Values and Social Achievement Values scales) and relevant cognitive, affective, and behavioral variables. Correlational and factor analyses clearly identified distinct autonomous and social achievement factors for both men and women in each of the samples. Examination of the correlates of achievement orientation indicated that whereas an autonomous achievement orientation is similarly expressed in males and females, there are considerable sex differences in the expression of an orientation toward social achievement. In particular, a social achievement orientation was associated with concerns over social approval and responsiveness to social influence among males, but was generally unrelated to these factors among females. Findings are discussed in terms of several recent hypotheses concerning the effects of sex role norms on the development and expression of achievement needs in men and women.     

Racial Discrimination and Racial Identity as Risk or Protective Factors for Violent Behaviors in African American Young Adults

This study examined the influences of racial discrimination and different racial identity attitudes on engaging in violent behavior among 325 African American young adults. The contributions of racial discrimination and racial identity attitudes in explaining violent behavior during the transition into young adulthood while controlling for the influences of prior risk behaviors at ninth grade were examined separately for males and females. In addition, the buffering effects of racial identity attitudes on the relationship between racial discrimination and violent behavior were tested. Results indicated that experience with racial discrimination was a strong predictor of violent behavior, regardless of gender. The centrality of race for males and the meaning others attribute to being Black for both males and females were moderators of the influence of racial discrimination on violent behavior.     

A reexamination of sex differences in job preferences

Previous research has found conflicting answers to the question of whether males and females share similar preferences for various job characteristics. It is difficult to determine if the different findings are due to the different populations sampled, the various methodologies employed, or to a real change in the phenomenon itself. This study essentially replicates earlier work by having 130 male and 84 female college students rate the importance of 10 job characteristics for both themselves and members of the opposite sex. Both sexes rated motivators as important, but females also placed importance on the hygienes. Males tended to underestimate the importance of the motivators for females, while females overestimated the importance of hygienes for males. The subject's sex could be predicted by both the importance for self and importance for opposite sex ratings, contrary to the earlier study. The difference in results and interpretation was shown to be due to the type of analyses used. Additionally, it was found that females' job preferences were related to their mothers' educational achievement.     

A Method for the Measurement of the Self-Concept of Children in the Third Grade

Fifty-five males and 38 females were administered a self-rating scale which allowed self and typical-student estimates of intelligence, motivation, and achievement. Males and females gave similar self-estimates of intelligence, although compared to the males, the females rated their motivation and achievement higher. Both males and females regarded the typical female student as more intelligent, more motivated, and more academically successful than the typical male student. A sex difference was observed on self versus typical-student-of-the-same-sex ratings. On noncollege-related personality dimensions, both males and females continue to share an unfavorable female stereotype.     

Identity as a moderator of gender differences in the emotional closeness of emerging adults' same- and cross-sex friendships

Closeness is an integral aspect of friendships, and males and females differ in their closeness experiences within these relationships. However, identity development and friendship type (e.g., same-sex versus cross-sex friendships) may moderate these gender differences. In an attempt to clarify the relationships among gender, identity, and friendship closeness, the current study examined gender and identity associations with reported emotional closeness in emerging adults' same- and cross-sex friendships. Responses from 181 college undergraduates (89 males and 92 females) indicated similar levels of emotional closeness reported for same- and cross-sex friendships. Results also indicated overall identity commitment and friendship identity commitment associations with same-sex friendship closeness. Examination of closeness reports for cross-sex friends revealed a significant association with overall identity commitment for emerging adult males. A significant association was not indicated for emerging adult females. The associations between identity and emotional closeness in same-sex friendships and male cross-sex friendships support previous studies that report differences in the role of these relationships for emerging adult males and females. Findings are discussed in terms of understanding the gender and identity differences in emerging adults' reports of friendship closeness.     

Gender differences in math and english achievement: A longitudinal study

This study investigated gender-related developmental trends in math and English achievement as measured by classroom grades and standardized test scores. The sample consisted of 30 males and 30 females followed from 6th through 12th grade. Previous research suggests that developmental trends in male and female achievement may differ as a function of assessment context. Thus, it was hypothesized that female math and English classroom grades would remain stable over time but that achievement test scores in both subject areas would decline. For males, it was hypothesized that performance in both assessment contexts would remain stable. Results confirmed these hypotheses. Results also suggest that school-related responsibility is related to performance in both assessment contexts for females but not for males. The need to consider personal goals when assessing differences in academic ability and performance capabilities is discussed.     

数学成就的性别差异

数学成就的性别差异是多年来广受关注的问题。长期以来人们多关注男性、女性数学成就水平的高低, 而近年来研究结果一方面揭示出总体上男性和女性数学成就的平均水平差异很小, 呈现出相似性多于差异性的特点; 同时也显示男性内部变异比女性更大, 男性在高数学成就者中占多数。数学成就性别差异的大小和方向受到评分系统、测验组织形式、测验内容和难度的影响。数学成就性别差异的形成是心理、生物、社会文化等方面多因素综合作用的结果。近期研究探讨了年龄、遗传和进化、激素和脑、刻板印象威胁、社会性别公平和时代等因素在数学成就性别差异的形成中的作用。未来对数学成就性别差异的研究应注意开展追踪研究, 关注低数学能力者, 进一步探讨复杂数学加工机制的性别差异, 建立数学成就性别差异形成机制的综合模型, 并在更广阔的社会文化背景下开展研究。     

Parental Relationship and Value Orientation as Factors in Academic Achievement

The study applies a theory of group functioning to the family structure and identifies 2 variables hypothesized to bear a functional relationship to achievement—perceived strength of the parent-child relationship and perceived parental valuing of achievement. Grades earned in school provide the criterion. In the examination of these variables, the findings for males and females are contrasted. The resulting data reveal marked differences in male and female achievement orientations. In general, the findings for females conform to the predictions made, while those for males do not. Several interesting interactions are reported in which levels of intelligence are found in special combination with the other independent variables studied. The relationships identified are regarded as evidence particularly relevant to female achievement motivation.     

Female identity development and self-reflection in late adolescence

The primary aim of this study was to assess whether the capacity for self-reflection in late adolescent females is related to their level of identity development. It was hypothesized that females characterized by advanced identity status (either identity achievement or moratorium) would exhibit a greater capacity for self-reflection than those characterized by less advanced identity status (foreclosure or diffusion). Of 85 subjects who met the criteria for this study (female college students in the New York City area), 32 fit purely into one of four identity statuses; among this latter group, a t test revealed a significantly higher degree of self-reflection for the advanced identity status subjects. Implications for the psychology of identity are discussed.     

Personality,social support,and anxiety among adolescents preparing for university entrance examinations in turkey

This study aimed to investigate the importance of different sources of perceived social support, sociotropic and autonomic personality dispositions, achievement expectation, and importance of academic achievement in predicting anxiety symptoms of male and female students who were preparing for the university entrance exam. Three hundred and forty students with ages varying from 16 to 21 participated in the study. Separate multiple regression analyses were run for males and females in predicting anxiety symptoms. The total Sociotropy score and the total Social Support score predicted anxiety for females, whereas for males, anxiety was predicted by four variables, namely, Achievement Expectancy, Concern over Approval, Social Support from Family, and Social Support from Friends. Implications of these results were discussed. This study was supported by the Turkish Academy of Sciences under the Young Scientist Award Program. (TG-TUBA-GEB>P/2002-l-ll).     

Personality, social support, and anxiety among adolescents preparing for university entrance examinations in turkey

This study aimed to investigate the importance of different sources of perceived social support, sociotropic and autonomic personality dispositions, achievement expectation, and importance of academic achievement in predicting anxiety symptoms of male and female students who were preparing for the university entrance exam. Three hundred and forty students with ages varying from 16 to 21 participated in the study. Separate multiple regression analyses were run for males and females in predicting anxiety symptoms. The total Sociotropy score and the total Social Support score predicted anxiety for females, whereas for males, anxiety was predicted by four variables, namely, Achievement Expectancy, Concern over Approval, Social Support from Family, and Social Support from Friends. Implications of these results were discussed. This study was supported by the Turkish Academy of Sciences under the Young Scientist Award Program. (TG-TUBA-GEB>P/2002-l-ll).     

Formal operations and ego identity in adolescence

This study investigated the relationship between the development of formal operations and the formation of ego identity in adolescence. Two Piagetian formal tasks, the combinatorial and equilibrium in the balance, and two measures of ego identity, a semistructured interview and an incomplete sentences test, were administered to 20 males and 20 females each at age levels 10-12, 13-15, and 16-18 years. Significant positive correlations were obtained between combinatorial ability and degree of identity, suggesting that high identity may facilitate the application of combinatorial operations. Males exhibited superior performance on the balance task; thus they may utilize more effective cognitive strategies, or be more inherently motivated to solve mechanical problems than females. On the identity interview, females showed a greater degree of commitment to future goals than males in middle adolescence; this may reflect the earlier maturation of females.     

REACTIONS TO RESUMES AS A FUNCTION OF RESUME DETERMINATENESS, APPLICANT CHARACTERISTICS, AND SEX OF RATERS

Six male and six female personnel professionals were presented with resumes in which sex, age, marital status, and academic achievement were systematically varied. The study examined the hypothesis that resume determinateness is positively related to the evaluation given to the resume by prospective employers. The provision of ambiguous information was found to distort the evaluation process but not in a consistent manner. Married males and females were evaluated more positively than were those who were single. Also married females with high academic status were evaluated more positively than were married males with high academic status, although there were no differences for single males and females. Female raters showed a tendency to be more stringent than males in their evaluations, and this effect was pronounced for older, married applicants. The study examines the implications of these results and makes suggestions for future research.