In-Role or Extra-Role Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Which Are We Measuring?

This study examined the extra-role nature of behavioral items from a popular measure of Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB). Presented with a list of both OCB items and items reflecting in-role behaviors, a majority of participants (85% or more; N = 248) categorized 17 of 30 OCBs as in-role work behaviors. Items tapping OCBs in the conscientiousness and courtesy dimensions were considered in-role more frequently than items in other OCB dimensions. Altruism and civic virtue items were more frequently considered extra-role than items in other OCB dimensions. Negative relationships between supervisory experience and the propensity to view altruism, courtesy, and sportsmanship OCBs as in-role were found. Implications for future research and recommendations for OCB scale use are discussed.     

Cautionary note on the use of short state-anxiety measures

The report noted that the use of high item-remainder coefficients as the sole criterion in the selection of items for short state-anxiety scales from full scales can lead to inaccurate interpretation of results. It was demonstrated that the use of a four-item state-anxiety scale from the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory A-State scale based on high item-remainder coefficients changed relationships in a previously reported study which used full-scale scores. It was proposed that such changes in relationships were the result of selecting four items which happen to load on only one of three dimensions of the A-State scale. The criterion of high item-remainder coefficents alone may be inadequate in the formation of short state-anxiety scales.     

Extraversion: sociability and impulsivity?

The sociability and impulsivity components of extraversion were studied. Thirty experimental items were written to assess different aspects of sociability and impuslivity. These items, along with the 24 extraversion items of the MPI, were administered to 146 college students. Factor analyses of experimental items indicated that neither sociability nor impulsivity is unitary. Correlations among these sociability and impulsivity factors and the MPI extraversion items indicated that MPI extraversion is essentially a measure of one aspect of sociability: the quantity of social relationships. Extraversion touches on but does not adequately sample either the intensity (quality) of social relationships or aspects of impulsivity.     

Development and validation of a short form aggressive beliefs and attitudes scale

This research outlines six studies (total N = 3867) that develop and validate an Aggressive Beliefs and Attitudes — Short Form scale for use within the normal nonclinical adult population (e.g., organizational psychology). In the first two samples, exploratory factor analysis reduced the original 30 item scale to a shorter, more parsimonious, eight item measure. In the third sample, confirmatory factor analysis found that the proposed model and items fit the data extremely well. Examination of the nomological network underlying the new measure in Samples 3–4 displayed relationships with positive affect, negative affect, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism ranging from r = .23 to − .23, while relationships with anger, hostility, physical aggression, and verbal aggression ranged from r = .49 to .30. Finally, in two criterion-related validity studies the relationships between the aggressive beliefs and attitudes scales, both original and short forms, and workplace deviance were examined with independent samples of employed adults. The short form scale was significantly related to workplace deviance in both samples (r = .37 and .43). Furthermore, these relationships were of identical magnitude to the full 30 item measure, suggesting that the short form scale comparably captures aggression-related behaviors with a greatly reduced number of items.     

Relationships between proenvironmental attitudes and concepts of nature

The author investigated relationships between proenvironmental attitudes and concepts of nature. Proenvironmental attitudes were measured on a 5-point scale containing 27 items. The author developed a 5-point scale containing 20 items to assess concepts of nature. The author administered those 2 scales to 140 young adults and adolescents at 2 Japanese institutions of higher education. An investigation of 6 proenvironmental attitudes and 20 concepts of nature showed some significant relationships. Factor analysis of the 20 concepts of nature produced 2 factors: Positive Evaluation of Nature and Rejection of Manipulation of Human Life. Most relationships were significant between the scores for the 6 proenvironmental attitudes and those for the 2 factors of concepts of nature.     

Developing and Testing a Spiritual Care Questionnaire in the Iranian Context

As most research exploring nurses?? perceptions on the topic of spiritual care was conducted in Western countries, these findings may not be applicable in Iran because of cultural and health system differences. Therefore, a new survey instrument was developed for the Iranian context. The study was conducted in two steps: (1) development and validation of items for perception scale and (2) distribution of the questionnaire among nursing students to determine scale reliability and construct validity. The preliminary scale consisted of 50 items designed to measure the participants?? perception of spiritual care. Construct validity of the scale was examined on the remaining 33 items. On interpretation of the items, the following four components were identified: (1) meeting patient as a being in meaning and hope, (2) meeting patient as a being in relationship, (3) meeting patient as a religious being, and (4) meeting patients as a being with autonomy. The results in this paper showed that preserving dignity in the nurses?? practice meant getting involved in interpersonal caring relationships, with respect for the involved peoples?? religious beliefs and their autonomy. Proper education and professionally led supervision with reflection on past and recent experiences may develop student nurses?? and nurses?? perceptions as well as their attitudes toward spiritual care and to achieve a realistic view of the profession.     

Validating a “spurning scale” for teachers

Based on a model on helpers’ reactions to rejection of their help, a spurning scale for teachers was constructed, comprising items that examine teachers’ perception of spurning of their help/advice by students and colleagues. Three avenues were taken to assess the validity of the scale: The relationships of the spurning scores with burnout scores; the relationships of spurning scores with job (dis)satisfaction and with job turnover; and relationships of spurning scores with job stresses from different sources. In-service teachers enrolled in a teacher training program were invited to fill out a questionnaire that contained these variables. Results suggest that the spurning scale is valid.     

Not too little, but not too much: The perceived desirability of responses to personality items

Paradigms typically employed to investigate socially desirable responding in personality assessment implicitly assume linear relationships exist between trait level and desirability but recent research has called this assumption into question. In this study, participants rated the desirability of a hypothetical applicant to one of four jobs on the basis of which five-point Likert-type scale option he/she selected when responding to personality items. Results generally indicated that the most extreme option, on the desirable side of the response scale, was rated as most desirable, but perceived desirability asymptotes with the penultimate option. The middle (neutral) option, however, was consistently regarded as being much less desirable. The occupational context also significantly moderated the patterns of desirability ratings for many items.     

Family Assessment Measure (FAM) and Process Model of Family Functioning

This paper provides an overview of twenty years' work in the development of the Family Assessment Measure (FAM), based on the Process Model of Family Functioning. The Process Model describes a conceptual framework for conducting family assessments according to seven key dimensions: task accomplishment, role performance, communication, affective expression, involvement, control, values and norms. The FAM provides measures of these dimensions at three levels: whole family system (general scale, fifty items), various dyadic relationships (dyadic scale, forty-two items) and individual functioning (self-rating scale, forty-two items). In addition, the general scale includes social desirability and defensiveness response style measures. Brief FAMs (fourteen items) are available for each scale as well. The measurement properties of FAM have been evaluated in a variety of clinical and non-clinical settings. Reliability estimates are very good in most contexts. FAM's validity has been supported using a number of techniques. Overall, the weight of the evidence is that FAM's effectively and efficiently assess family functioning and provide strong explanatory and predictive utility. This empirical evidence reinforces experiences of clinicians, indicating that FAM provides a rich source of information on family functioning.     

Measuring grief after sudden violent death: Zeebrugge bereaved at 30 months

The Expanded Texas Inventory of Grief was used to measure the intensity of grief reactions in those bereaved by the Zeebrugge Disaster 30 months on. “View of Life” items were also included. The ETIG scores reported confirm the view that those bereaved by disaster or other sudden death score higher than those affected by bereavements which are expected. Further, the scores of the bereaved, who did not experience the impact, are somewhat higher than the scores of the survivors, who did, on all the measures used. The ETIG as a whole correlates highly with measures of general psychological symptoms and intrusive and avoidant trauma reactions, although there are indications that each measure relates to different areas of symptoms. There is strong support for the idea that avoidance and denial are central to prolonged grief reactions as well as to post-traumatic reactions. “View of Life” items did not correlate with other measures and seem to have little value in predicting psychological symptoms. The use of these items, which appear in later revisions of the scale (TRIGVOL) may indicate that this particular version has reduced clinical utility. A short form of the ETIG is suggested.     

Personal assessment of intimacy in relationships: Validity and measurement invariance across gender

IntroductionIntimacy is central in close relationships and a variety of definitions and instruments exist in scientific literature, making this concept complex to investigate. Furthermore, gender differences were identified in the definition and experience of intimacy.ObjectivesThis study aims to confirm the three-factor structure of the personal assessment of intimacy in relationships (PAIR, Schaefer & Olson, 1981), commonly used in research and marital therapy, developed by Moore et al. (1998) and to examine the measurement equivalence of the scale across gender.MethodA confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed on the responses of 313 women and 251 men in committed relationships in a French population. Measurement equivalence of the scale across gender was then conducted with the best-fitting model.ResultsThe results of CFA and post-hoc analyses revealed that the three-factor model revised with 18 items was the best fit to the data: (1) engagement (10 items), (2) communication (5 items), (3) shared friends (3 items). PAIR-18 displayed a lack of metric and scalar invariance across gender but estimated means of latent variables is not very different between the full invariant model and the unconstraint models.ConclusionNevertheless, consideration of gender differences in the construct of intimacy is very important for theoretical research on intimacy in romantic relationships and for the interventions of marital therapists based on intimacy.     

Preliminary field-testing of a risk estimator for suicide

A 15-item suicide risk estimator, empirically derived from a prospective study of 2,753 suicidal persons, was given a field trial in five clinical settings. Two hundred ninety subjects were included. Volunteer crisis workers needed an average of 4.5 minutes to complete the instrument, and rated its ease of administration 2.5 on a 5-point scale. When compared with clinical ratings, the instrument estimated suicide risk slightly higher than did the interviewers. Scale items that differed from the raters' intuition tended to be omitted more than others. The trial provided valuable information needed to prepare for a large scale evaluation.     

Validating a “spurning scale” for nurses in Hong Kong

Based on a model on spumed helpers’ reactions, a spurning scale for nurses was constructed with items to assess the extent to which practicing nurses experience recurrent rejection of their help by patients and colleagues. Three approaches were employed to examine the validity of the scale: the relationship of the spurning scores with job satisfaction and turnover scores; the relationships of the spurning scores with burnout scores; and the relationships of the spurning scores with scores indicative of stress arising from interactions with one's patients, colleagues, and supervisor. Practicing nurses in Hong Kong (N = 212) who were enrolled in a refresher program of studies responded to a questionnaire containing the variables of interest. The results offered promising evidence for the validity of the scale.     

A literature review of subtle-obvious items on the MMPI

This article chronologically reviews the literature relating to subtle and obvious items of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. Wiener's original development of subtle and obvious subscales, Seeman's support for the concept of subtlety, and Duffs arguments concerning empirical versus face validity are discussed. Later research exploring demand characteristics are then reviewed, such as the paradoxical relationships under differing instruction sets and population issues. The work from Auburn University researchers on the development of a 5-point subtlety scale, the interaction with personality factors, and individual scale research is critiqued.     

Minimizing gender differences in children's interest assessment: Development of the Inventory of Children's Activities-3 (ICA-3)

The focus of this study was on revising the Inventory of Children's Activities–Revised (ICA-R; Tracey & Ward, 1998) to enhance its psychometric properties while minimizing gender differences in scale scores. The original 30 ICA-R items and an additional 30 items were administered to 70,280 fifth-eighth grades students. The original scoring was compared to a revised scoring method based solely on the empirically best items and a scoring method balancing empirical scoring with minimizing gender differences. All three item sets (original, empirical, and combined empirical/gender balancing) resulted in strong internal consistency estimates and adequate fit to the circular structure, yet the combined empirical/gender method had much lower gender differences especially for the scales measuring Investigative and Social interests. The implications of using the revised scale with children is discussed.     

Item response theory in personality assessment: a demonstration using the MMPI-2 depression scale

Item response theory (IRT) analyses have, over the past 3 decades, added much to our understanding of the relationships among and characteristics of test items, as revealed in examinees response patterns. Assessment instruments used outside the educational context have only infrequently been analyzed using IRT, however. This study demonstrates the relevance of IRT to personality data through analyses of Scale 2 (the Depression Scale) on the revised Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2). A rich set of hypotheses regarding the items on this scale, including contrasts among the Harris-Lingoes and Wiener-Harmon subscales and differences in the items measurement characteristics for men and women, are investigated through the IRT analyses.     

Relationship between cynicism and job satisfaction: exploration of mechanisms

To apply a Mokken Scale Procedure in developing a hierarchical cross-national scale to measure xenophobia, a pool of 30 xenophobia-related items was collected from several sources and modified using established unidimensional criteria. The survey was administered to 608 undergraduate students in the USA, 193 undergraduate students in The Netherlands, and 303 undergraduate students in Norway. 14 items measuring perceived threat or fear and meeting the criteria of the Stereotype Content Model were selected for further analysis. A separate item analysis and, subsequently, Mokken Scale Procedure yielded a cumulative scale with the same five items for each of the three samples. The items and the total scale met criteria for homogeneity in all samples with H > .40.     

Perceived product instrumentality: the process of scale purification and validation

Perceived product instrumentality (PPI) is a new construct that is proposed as a key process component of a general model of family purchasing behaviour. PPI reflects the degree to which consumers, apprehended as actors of social roles, deem a product to be helpful, facilitative of role performance, compatible with role identity and congruent with the self‐concept. The objective of this paper is threefold: (1) assess the PPI unidimensionality and reliability; (2) purify the PPI scale, and (3) assess its validity. First, a pilot survey was administered to a convenience sample of men and women, who filled in four identical lists of 33 items tapping their attitudes towards durables, and exploratory factor analysis was conducted on each set to explore the overall pattern of the items relationships. Five try‐out pools of different sizes (33, 28, 15, 13 and 9 items) were involved in the analysis. The 15‐item scale was retained. Secondly, a large‐scale survey was administered to 500 couples as part of an extensive research involving comprehensive model testing. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted on the whole sample for reliability and unidimensionality assessment. At times, the analysis is done on men's and women's sub‐samples separately in order to account for eventual differences among both populations. Thirdly, confirmatory factor was conducted, splitting the sample into two random halves: the generation sample and the validation sample. The first half served for the PPI scales purification. In this case, PPI was posited as the latent variable and the scale items were posited as the manifest ones. The second served to validate the PPI theory in a system's framework: PPI was posited as a latent dependent variable while other role orientations variables were posited as latent independent variables. Copyright © 2002 Henry Stewart Publications.