When the pressure is up: The assessment of social identity threat in low and high status groups

The hypothesis was tested that whereas members of a low status group show a physiological threat response when evaluating a performance situation on the basis of the status quo, members of high status groups show a physiological threat response when evaluating a possible change of the status quo. Participants were categorized in minimal groups, after which they performed a task on which group-level feedback was given (group status manipulation). Later on during the experiment, a second round of this task was unexpectedly announced (implying a possible change in the group’s status). In line with expectations, participants in the low status condition showed higher blood pressure directly after the status feedback, whereas participants in the high status condition showed a similar response in anticipation of the second round of the task. Results are discussed in terms of social identity theory, and the physiological assessment of threats to social identity.     

Fuming with rage! Do members of low status groups signal anger more than members of high status groups?

Owuamalam, Weerabangsa, Karunagharan and Rubin found that Malaysians associate people in low status groups with anger more than their higher status counterparts: the hunchback heuristic. But is this belief accurate? Here, we propose the alternative possibility that members of low‐status groups might deliberately suppress anger to counter this stigma, while members of high‐status groups might disinhibit their anger to assert their superiority. To test these propositions, we manipulated undergraduate students’ relative group status by leading them to believe that provocative comments about their undergraduate social identity came from a professor (low‐status condition) or a junior foundation year student (high‐status condition). Using eye‐tracking, we then measured their gaze durations on the comments, which we used as a physiological signal of anger: dwelling (Experiment 1). Results revealed that dwelling was significantly greater in the high‐status condition than in the low‐status condition. Experiment 2 conceptually replicated this pattern using a self‐report method and found that the suppression‐disinhibition effect occurred only when reputational concerns were strong.     

Social creativity strikes back: improving motivated performance of low status group members by valuing ingroup dimensions

Motivation of stigmatized group members to perform on status‐relevant ‘outgroup’ dimensions can be impaired after ingroup failure. Three experiments examined whether social creativity by valuing ingroup dimensions (dimensions on which an ingroup outperforms an outgroup) can increase motivation and performance on outgroup dimensions. It was hypothesized that under high social identity threat, motivation on the outgroup dimension would benefit from valuing an ingroup dimension. Experiments 1 and 2 show that when social identity threat is increased, low status group members who personally value ingroup dimensions show higher motivation to perform on the outgroup dimension. Experiment 3 shows that the induction of high contextual value of both ingroup and outgroup dimensions improves low status group members' well‐being and motivated performance on the outgroup dimension. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

When and How Do High Status Group Members Offer Help: Effects of Social Dominance Orientation and Status Threat

The present study explored the implications of an intergroup perspective on individual difference and situational influences on helping, specifically, outgroup members. In particular, we examined the effects of social dominance orientation (SDO) and group status threat on the amount and kind of help offered by Jewish participants (n = 99) to Arab and Jewish students. Dependent measures were the likelihood of helping outgroup and ingroup members across various situations of need and, when help is given, the likelihood that it would be dependency‐oriented rather than autonomy‐oriented assistance. As expected, higher SDO individuals offered less help to outgroup (Arab) students, particularly when they experienced threat to group status, but not to ingroup members. In addition, higher SDO participants, when they did report that they would help, were more likely to offer dependency‐oriented help to outgroup than to ingroup members. The theoretical and applied implications are discussed.     

Less Biased Under Threat? Self‐Verificatory Reactions to Social Identity Threat Among Groups With Negative Self‐Stereotypes1

According to social identity theory, when group status is threatened, highly committed group members respond with greater in‐group favoritism. However, some of the groups build their identities on negative self‐stereotypes. For such groups, status‐threatening information should lead their members to confirmation of the group's negative self‐image. Study 1 examined the effects of group‐directed threat in a group with a long tradition of negative self‐perception. The manipulation led participants to higher ratings of the out‐group, and reduced adherence to in‐group‐defending ideologies. Study 2 provided further support to our predictions: Participants holding negative self‐stereotypes reacted to group‐image threats with more positive feelings about out‐groups. Findings are discussed within the theoretical framework of social identity theory and self‐verification theory.     

Homogeneity perception as a reaction to identity threat: effects of status difference in a simulated society game

The present study examined how members of low status groups would react to a threat to their social identity. Undergraduates participated in a ‘simulated society game,’ and were divided into four groups, each of which was assigned either a high or low status. During a series of game sessions with intergroup competition and cooperation, participants estimated the range of distributions among in‐ group and out‐group members regarding various traits. The central tendency and variability derived from each estimate were analysed. Members of the low status groups deprecated their in‐group with respect to a status‐defining trait, but showed in‐group favouritism regarding alternative, status‐irrelevant traits. Furthermore, the low status members judged their in‐group as more homogeneous than the out‐group regarding the alternative traits, particularly when they were compared to a high status group. The results were interpreted as an indication of a subtle form of maintaining positive in‐group evaluations. Theoretical and methodological implications for the study of status effects are discussed. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Managing one's social identity: Successful and unsuccessful identity management

This work explores the motivational dynamics of social identity management. Following social identity theory, we hypothesized that a threat to a positive social identity elicits specific negative emotions (i.e., outgroup‐directed anger) and motivates identity management. Successful identity management restores a positive social identity and decreases outgroup‐directed anger. However, when a successful identity management is blocked (e.g., because of limited cognitive resources), identity management will be unsuccessful and outgroup‐directed anger will remain at a higher level. This effect of unsuccessful identity management on outgroup‐directed anger should be particularly strong for group members who highly value their group (i.e., high group‐based self‐esteem). A negative comparison outcome is discrepant with these group members' positive view of the ingroup, and therefore, unsuccessful identity management should especially elicit negative emotions (i.e., anger) towards the threatening outgroup. Two studies tested these predictions. Study 1 (N = 110) showed that participants' outgroup‐directed anger increased when threatened under cognitive load. Study 2 (N = 99) demonstrated that this was particularly true for participants high in group‐based self‐esteem. The results' implications for research on the motivational processes underlying social identity management are discussed. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

When status differences are illegitimate,groups' needs diverge: Testing the needs‐based model of reconciliation in contexts of status inequality

The present paper extends the needs‐based model of reconciliation to contexts marked by status inequalities rather than by overt intergroup aggression. Specifically, we investigated whether and when members of high‐status versus low‐status groups experience divergent socio‐emotional needs vis‐à‐vis members of the respective other status group. Building on research informed by social identity theory, we hypothesized that the groups' different positions in the social hierarchy only translate into divergent needs when the status differences are perceived as illegitimate. In Study 1 (N = 130), we tested this prediction by manipulating status and perceived legitimacy of status differences in a setting with artificially created groups. Results confirmed that the need to be socially accepted by members of the other status group was stronger in high‐status compared with low‐status group members but, as expected, only when the status differences were perceived to be illegitimate. Also as predicted, the need to be empowered by the other status group was stronger in low‐status compared with high‐status group members, again only under conditions of illegitimate status differences. Study 2 (N = 169) further corroborated our perspective by replicating these findings in a naturalistic intergroup context. Implications for the role of legitimacy perceptions in determining differential socio‐emotional needs and for the promotion of sustainable social change are discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Chameleonic social identities: Context induces shifts in homosexuals' self‐stereotyping and self‐categorization

Do people align their self‐concepts to the environment? It was predicted that low‐status (homosexuals), but not high‐status group members (heterosexuals), respond to environmental cues by shifting the type of self‐categorization and self‐stereotyping. In the presence (vs. absence) of environmental cues to sexual orientation, homosexual individuals felt more talented for typically homosexual jobs and showed greater self‐stereotyping on typically homosexual traits (Experiment 1). Using implicit measures of self‐categorization and self‐stereotyping, we observed parallel findings for homosexuals, but not for heterosexuals (Experiment 2). Results are discussed in relation to research on stigma, with particular attention to the potential benefits for low‐status group members of changing their implicit self‐concept flexibly across situations. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

In‐group representation and social value affect the use of in‐group identification for maintaining and enhancing self‐evaluation

Individuals with independent self‐construals identify with their in‐group in order to buffer threats to self‐esteem to a greater degree than do those with interdependent self‐construals. This study focused on the effect of the in‐group's social value and representation on this identification process among individuals who reported various real‐world threats to their self‐esteem. We conducted a questionnaire survey for university students and we examined how self‐construal, the in‐group social value, and the in‐group representation either moderate or mediate the relationship between threat to self‐esteem and identification with their academic departments. The results of multiple‐group analyses of structural equation modelling showed that independents who reported more threats to their self‐esteem identified with the in‐group when it was high in social value. In contrast, they did not exhibit in‐group identification when it was low in social value. Interdependents showed less in‐group identification regardless of the in‐group's social value. The representation of the in‐group as a common identity group mediated the relationship between threat to self‐esteem and in‐group identification for independents, whereas the representation of a common bond group played the same role for interdependents. These findings suggest the importance of considering the role of self‐construal and the in‐group social value, along with the representation of in‐group, in understanding in‐group identification in situations of threat to self‐esteem.     

When talking makes you feel like a group: The emergence of group-based emotions

Group-based emotions are emotional reactions to group concerns and have been shown to emerge when people appraise events while endorsing a specific social identity. Here we investigate whether discussing a group-relevant event with other group members affects emotional reactions in a similar way. In two experiments, we confronted participants with an unfair group-relevant event, while manipulating their social identity and whether they discussed the event or an unrelated topic. Our major finding is that having group members discuss the unfair group-relevant event led to emotions that were more negative than in the irrelevant discussion and comparable to those observed when social identity had been made salient explicitly beforehand. Moreover, it also generated group-based appraisals of injustice (Experiment 1) and group-based identity (Experiment 2). This research sheds new light not only on the consequences of within-group sharing of emotions for the unfolding of intergroup relations but also on the nature of group-based emotions.     

How a perceived status change increase consumers’ tendency toward consumption through double psychological mechanisms

While previous research has demonstrated that status significantly affects consumer behaviour, most studies have examined objective status rather than perceived status. The present article, therefore, aims to examine how a perceived change in status affects consumers’ status consumption as well as the underlying psychological mechanisms for this behaviour. Study 1 manipulates participants’ perceived status change and measures their tendencies toward status consumption. Results show that both participants undergoing status improvement and those perceiving a threat to their status are more inclined towards status consumption than participants in a control condition. Study 2 manipulates participants’ perceived status change and measures their self‐presentation motivation, self‐compensation motivation, and status consumption tendency. A series of mediation analyses shows that self‐presentation, rather than self‐compensation, mediates the positive effect of status improvement on consumers’ status consumption and that self‐compensation, rather than self‐presentation, mediates the positive effect of status threat on consumers’ status consumption. Results of our studies suggest that consumers who perceive status improvement seek status consumption for self‐presentation purposes, while consumers who perceive status threat seek status consumption for self‐compensation. The article concludes by discussing the theoretical contribution of this research and offering practical suggestions regarding product marketing.     

Brexit or Bremain? A person and social analysis of voting decisions in the EU referendum

The period following UK's European Union referendum in 2016 foreshadows significant social and political change in the UK. The current research draws on social psychological theories to empirically examine the drivers of voting decisions during the referendum. We report the results of a prospective study using structural equation modelling with data (N = 244) collected just before, and self‐reported voting behaviour immediately following (N = 197), the European Union referendum. We employ a person and social approach to examine the additive roles of worldview, conservatism, social identity, and intergroup threat as predictors of voting intentions and behaviour. Results showed that person factors (worldview and conservatism) predicted voting intentions through social factors (European identity and realistic threat) and that intentions predicted behaviour. The results highlight the importance of addressing threat‐based intergroup rhetoric and the potential of common in‐group identity to mitigate psychological threat.     

Effects of Visual Representation on Social Influence in Computer‐Mediated Communication

Two experiments investigated if and how visual representation of interactants affects depersonalization and conformity to group norms in anonymous computer‐mediated communication (CMC). In Experiment 1, a 2 (intergroup versus interpersonal) × 2 (same character versus different character) between‐subjects design experiment (N= 60), each participant made a decision about social dilemmas after seeing two other (ostensible) participants’ unanimous opinions and then exchanged supporting arguments. Consistent with the Social Identity model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE), when the group level of self‐identity was rendered salient in an intergroup encounter, uniform virtual appearance of CMC partners triggered depersonalization and subsequent conformity behavior. By contrast, when the personal dimension of the self was salient, standardized representation tended to reduce conformity. To elucidate the mediation process, Experiment 2 investigated the causal links between depersonalization, group identification, and conformity. The results show that depersonalization accentuated adherence to group norms, both directly and indirectly via group identification.     

Implicit self-esteem compensation: automatic threat defense

Four experiments demonstrated implicit self-esteem compensation (ISEC) in response to threats involving gender identity (Experiment 1), implicit racism (Experiment 2), and social rejection (Experiments 3-4). Under conditions in which people might be expected to suffer a blow to self-worth, they instead showed high scores on 2 implicit self-esteem measures. There was no comparable effect on explicit self-esteem. However, ISEC was eliminated following self-affirmation (Experiment 3). Furthermore, threat manipulations increased automatic intergroup bias, but ISEC mediated these relationships (Experiments 2-3). Thus, a process that serves as damage control for the self may have negative social consequences. Finally, pretest anxiety mediated the relationship between threat and ISEC (Experiment 3), whereas ISEC negatively predicted anxiety among high-threat participants (Experiment 4), suggesting that ISEC may function to regulate anxiety. The implications of these findings for automatic emotion regulation, intergroup bias, and implicit self-esteem measures are discussed.     

Social identification and permeability of group boundaries

Two experiments were conducted to investigate some of the factors affecting social identification. In Experiment 1 ingroup identification was measured for subjects who were members of high or low status groups with either permeable or impermeable boundaries, and who received high, average or low ability feedback. The main results are that (1) members of high status groups show more ingroup identification than members of low status groups (2) members of low status groups with permeable boundaries identify less with their group than members of low status groups with impermeable boundaries and (3) in low status groups ingroup identification decreases as group members have higher individual ability. In Experiment 2, in addition to manipulating group status and individual ability, permeability was further differentiated into separate possibilities for upward and downward mobility. The most important results of Experiment 2 are that (1) members of high status groups show more ingroup identification than members of low status groups and (2) group members with high individual ability identify less with their group when upward mobility is possible than when upward mobility is not possible. These results are discussed in relation to social identity theory.     

Psychological group memberships as outcomes of resource distributions

We propose that people can and will infer group memberships from resource distributions, and that these distributions have implications for people's understandings of the groups themselves and their own associations with these groups. We derive hypotheses from social identity and self‐categorization theories, and test them in three experiments. In Experiment 1, participants systematically rated specific patterns of group memberships as more likely than others in light of specific resource distributions in a manner consistent with our predictions. In Experiment 2, intragroup distributive fairness led to greater perceived self‐in‐group similarity than intra‐group distributive unfairness, while distributively unfair, in‐group favouritism led to greater perceived self‐in‐group similarity than intergroup fairness. In Experiment 3, social identification dropped following unfair, out‐group favouritism and intragroup unfairness, but not unfair, in‐group favouritism, or intragroup and intergroup fairness. The current data provide support for our hypotheses and clear evidence that resource distributions can be providers of group membership information. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How to save the wounded self: Power distance belief's moderation of self‐identity threat and status‐related consumption

There is ample evidence in the relevant literature to show that self‐identity threat affects consumers' behavior, psychological needs, purchasing behavior, and product choice. The present research takes self‐identity threat to another level with a focus on the moderating role of power distance belief (PDB) in the relation to self‐identity threat and status consumption. The research involves two studies. Study 1 shows that threatened participants with a high PDB prefer status goods to nonstatus goods. By contrast, the low‐PDB group is indifferent to the status of goods. Study 2 reexamines the results of Study 2 with different participants and goods and tests the moderated mediation of symbolic compensatory need in the status consumption of high‐PDB participants. The results and implications of our findings are presented in the Discussion section.     

Football hooliganism: comparing self‐awareness and social identity theory explanations

The emergence of research interest in group violence in general and football hooliganism in particular has been explained by various models generally relying on situational or individual differences accounts. Yet, these two research traditions have largely evolved independently, showing little or no interaction. In the present study (N = 109), we integrate measures of these two approaches and the results reveal that social identity was more predictive of self‐reported physical aggression than of loss of private and public self‐awareness. Moreover, attitudes towards violence were the most marked predictor variables of both physical and verbal aggression. In the discussion, the moderator effect of social identity and attitudes about violence on physical aggression is elaborated upon. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hide and seek: the effects of revealing one's personal interests in intra‐ and intergroup negotiations

The present research examined the effects of information sharing about self‐interest and group membership of the negotiation partner on negotiation cognitions, behaviors and outcomes. Study 1 (n = 77) showed that in anticipation of the negotiation, participants placed more trust in an in‐group member, and were more willing to exchange information with a negotiation partner who revealed his/her self‐interest. Study 2 (n = 80) examined how these effects influenced the development of attitudes and behavior during and after the negotiation. Results showed that negotiations with in‐group members were more cooperative when they shared, rather than not shared, information about underlying self‐interest. By contrast, negotiations with out‐group members were more cooperative when they did not share, rather than shared, information about their underlying self‐interest. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.