青少年家庭中信任的代际传递:基于议价博弈的调查

父母的信任水平如果能预测子女的信任水平,就表明信任存在代际传递现象。以198个家庭中的青少年及其父母为研究对象,采用投资博弈任务分别测量其信任水平,检验父母的信任是否能预测子女信任水平。结果发现:(1)父母的信任水平能够预测子女的信任水平:如果母亲是高信任者,其子女相信陌生人的可能性是其他人的3.17倍;如果父亲是高信任者,子女成为高信任者的可能性是其他人的2.52倍;(2)父亲和母亲的信任水平存在显著关联,父母信任水平一致的家庭中半数以上子女表现出与父母相同的信任水平。     

信任：父母的代内相似和亲子的代际传递

以往研究指出, 信任有其家庭根源。以116个家庭中的子女及其父母为研究对象考察在家庭中, 父母信任水平是否相似, 父母和子女之间是否存在人际信任的代际传递现象。研究采用投资博弈问卷分别测量了子女和父母的信任水平, 并以送出数量和估计返还数量作为信任的测量指标。结果发现：(1)子女和父母在投资博弈中均表现出一定水平的信任, 且父母的信任表现出相似性; (2)在估计返还数量上, 信任表现出代际传递, 且传递存在性别差异：父亲和母亲的信任水平不能预测女孩的信任水平, 能预测男孩信任水平; 父亲对男孩的影响呈J型曲线, 母亲与男孩的信任水平呈倒U型曲线关系。     

家庭氛围、子女生活满意度与心理健康代际传递的关系：亲子性别和子女年龄的差异

为探讨家庭环境（家庭氛围）、认知过程（生活满意度）和个人因素（亲子性别和子女年龄）对心理健康代际传递的影响,对591户家庭亲子被试进行调查。结果显示：（1）父母心理健康均正向预测子女心理健康,家庭氛围和子女生活满意度在其中起了重要中介作用;（2）较之于父亲,母亲心理健康对家庭氛围的预测效应更显著,母亲能以家庭氛围和生活满意度为链式多重中介预测子女心理健康,父亲心理健康仅以生活满意度为中介预测子女心理健康;（3）母亲心理健康仅能直接预测女儿的生活满意度和心理健康,父子间代际传递效应高于父女,以及母亲对子女的影响效应随子女年龄增长而提高,父亲的影响效应却在下降。研究结果有助于揭示心理健康代际传递的作用机制,且可丰富心理健康领域的研究。     

双元孝道代际传递:亲子性别和子女年龄的调节作用

配对调查了591户家庭的亲子被试,考察了亲子女性别、子女年龄对双元孝道代际传递的影响。结果显示：（1）权威性孝道和互惠性孝道分别在父亲、母子与子女之间具有相似传递模式,但母亲互惠性孝道还能够预测子女权威性孝道;（2）子女性别能显著调节整个模型,母亲互惠性孝道能预测男性子女权威性孝道,但不能预测女性子女的权威性孝道,且母子之间互惠性孝道传递效应显著高于母女,并显著高于父子之间的同一路径系数;（3）子女年龄对模型的部分路径系数具有显著调节作用,母亲互惠性孝道仅能预测成年子女权威性孝道,母亲对成年子女的互惠性孝道代际传递效应显著高于父亲对成年子女,而父亲对青少年子女的互惠性孝道代际传递效应显著高于其对成年子女。据此研究结果,亲子性别和子女年龄是影响双元孝道代际传递的重要“传递带”。     

坚毅力的代际传递:父母教养方式的中介作用

从代际传递的角度,考察父母坚毅力和子女坚毅力的关系,同时检验教养方式在二者之间的中介作用。方法：采用问卷法对北京市三所中学初一、初二年级共302名青少年及其父母的数据进行调查,研究工具采用坚毅力问卷（Grit-Scales）、父母教养方式问卷（PBI）。结果：（1）父亲和母亲的坚毅力总分及两个维度兴趣一致性、坚持努力均可正向预测青少年坚毅力总分及各维度;（2）父亲教养方式的关爱维度在父亲坚毅力与孩子坚毅力之间起中介作用,母亲教养方式的关爱维度在母亲坚毅力与孩子坚毅力之间起中介作用。结论：坚毅力存在代际之间的传递,并且教养方式的关爱维度在代际传递过程中起部分中介作用。     

二孩家庭父母偏爱的特点及其与青少年抑郁的关系

对1655名来自二孩家庭的青少年进行调查,以考察二孩家庭中父母偏爱的特点及其与青少年抑郁的关系。结果发现：（1）父母偏爱水平较低,且父亲偏爱和母亲偏爱不存在显著差异。（2）父母偏爱存在性别和出生次序差异,男孩报告父母更偏爱自己,女孩报告父母更偏爱同胞;头胎子女报告父亲更偏爱自己,母亲更偏爱同胞,二胎子女则相反。（3）父母偏爱对青少年抑郁有显著影响,且为U型曲线关系,即当父母偏爱同胞或中高程度偏爱自己时,青少年抑郁水平均较高;当父母较低程度偏爱自己时,青少年抑郁水平最低。说明二孩家庭中不存在严重的父母偏爱,但父母偏爱会对青少年发展产生消极影响。     

价值取向的代际效应及其与青少年心理和学校适应的关系

采用问卷法和教师评价法对上海、河南、山东、甘肃四地共1730名青少年及其父母进行调查,旨在考察价值取向的代际效应及其与青少年心理和学校适应的关系。结果发现：（1）父母集体价值取向均能正向预测青少年集体责任;父亲集体取向和母亲个体价值取向均能正向预测青少年同伴友情;父亲个体价值取向和母亲集体取向均能正向预测青少年超越进取;仅母亲个体取向正向预测青少年时尚潮流;（2）父母集体取向均能通过青少年集体责任对其心理适应产生积极影响;父母个体取向和母亲集体取向能通过青少年超越进取对其心理和学校适应产生积极影响;（3）母亲个体取向通过青少年同伴友情对其心理适应产生积极影响,对学校适应产生消极作用;母亲个体取向通过青少年时尚潮流对其心理和学校适应产生消极作用。这些结果证实了亲子之间存在价值取向的代际效应,并强调了代际效应对青少年的心理和学校适应的重要性。     

父母的经济人信念对自身信任及儿童信任的影响

经济人信念认为人是自私的与理性的,研究者发现,经济人信念会破坏人际信任。然而,以上研究均是以大学生为被试的启动研究,限制了结论的可推广性。本研究编制了经济人信念量表,测量了351名成年被试的经济人信念及他们在投资博弈中的信任水平,以及其子女的信任水平,以考察父母的经济人信念对自身信任和其子女信任的影响。结果发现:(1)研究所编制的经济人信念量表信效度良好;(2)父母和儿童在投资博弈中均表现出了一定水平的信任;(3)父母的经济人信念能够预测其在投资博弈中的信任水平;(4)父母的经济人信念能够预测男孩在投资博弈中的投资额,主要表现为父亲的经济人信念能够负向预测男孩的投资额。     

青少年亲子沟通的特点研究

本研究采用整班随机抽样法选取兰州市两所普通中学的602名青少年及其父母,采用自编问卷探讨青少年亲子沟通的特点.结果表明:自编青少年亲子沟通问卷具有良好的信效度,达到心理测量学的要求,它可以分为青少年与父母沟通和父母与子女沟通两个方面.青少年与父母沟通方面,男生和初二学生与父母沟通较差,女生和其他年级学生与父母沟通较好;在父母与子女沟通方面,父母与女生,与初一、高一、高二学生沟通较好.相对父亲而言,母亲与子女沟通较好;这些差异表现在亲子沟通的不同维度.     

父母的教养方式及性别对孝道代际传递的影响

基于代际传递视角,亲子配对调查了439户家庭,考察了父母性别和教养方式对双元孝道代际传递的心理机制。结果:(1)权威性孝道和互惠性孝道都存在直接显著的代际传递效应;(2)父母权威性孝道正向预测父母心理控制,父母心理控制在亲子权威性孝道代际传递过程中起了中介作用;(3)父母互惠性孝道正向预测父母心理自主,父母心理自主主要在亲子互惠性孝道代际传递过程中起了中介作用;(4)父母性别在父母双元孝道、父母教养方式与子女双元孝道之间起了显著的调节作用。     

The shaping of masculinity: Revisioning boys turning away from their mothers to construct male gender identity

This paper offers an understanding of the nature of the internalization processes involved in the shaping of male gender identity founded on the boy's unique struggles in separating from his mother. The underpinning for the initial development of a sense of masculinity is reconsidered as the author questions the widely held idea of Greenson and Stoller that a boy normatively has to 'dis-identify' from his mother to create his gender identity. Import rather is placed on the conscious and unconscious aspects of the mother's (and father's) pre-oedipal and oedipal relationship with their little boy in order better to understand the nature of the boy's unique identifications and subsequent sense of masculinity. Both the security of the boy's attachment to his mother, in providing the foundation for a transitional turning to an 'other', and the mother's capacity to reflect upon and recognize her own, as well as the father's and her son's, subjectivity and maleness, are crucial in comprehending boys' 'attachment-individuation' process. Likewise, the unconscious paternal and maternal imagos and identifications of both the boy's mother and father, as well as the father's pre-oedipal relationship with his little boy and the boy's mother, are extremely significant in shaping a son's gender identity. The author argues that these early maternal (and paternal) identifications live on in every male and continue to impact the sense of maleness in a dialectical interplay throughout the life span. A maturing gender identity develops from integrating these early, pre-oedipal maternal identifications that no longer need be repudiated nor defensively organized as polarized gender splitting.     

父亲参与教养状况对学前儿童社会技能的作用

作为孩子成长的关键人物之一,父亲对儿童早期的社会性发展具有重要作用。本研究以184名学前中班儿童及其父母为被试,考察父亲参与教养的量(参与教养的时间)和质(积极教养行为)对儿童早期社会技能的作用。结果发现:(1)控制母亲积极教养行为以后,父亲参与教养时间仍显著预测儿童的社会技能,父亲积极教养行为的预测作用不再显著。(2)控制母亲积极教养行为后,父亲参与教养时间显著预测女孩的合作性、责任感、自我控制及总体社会技能,边缘显著预测男孩的主张性;父亲积极教养行为边缘显著预测男孩的主张性,对女孩各项社会技能的预测均不显著。(3)父亲参与教养时间显著预测母亲积极教养水平低组儿童的合作性、主张性、责任感、自我控制及总体社会技能,父亲积极教养行为边缘显著预测母亲积极教养低组儿童的合作性和总体社会技能。表明父亲参与教养对母亲消极教养具有缓冲作用,其中父亲参与教养时间的缓冲效应更明显。     

The father's shadow/father's body

The shadow of the father plays an important role in a son's ability to live a creatively meaningful life. The mythological basis for the father's shadow is found in the myth of Cronos and his son Zeus. This myth symbolizes a father's body being intimately connected to his son getting in touch with his creative bright shadow. The conclusions reached regarding the importance of the father's shadow are based on research conducted with an ongoing men's group. An early underground phallus dream of Jung is examined, along with the creative work of a patient, both offering evidence of the importance of the body-bond with the father for a son's creative development.David Morgan, CSW, is a psychoanalyst in private practice in New York City and Teaneck, New Jersey.     

Comparisons of female and male early adolescent sex role attitude and behavior development

This study contrasted female and male early adolescent sex role attitude and behavior development in an ecological context as defined by Bronfenbrenner. Data were the results of a state-wide survey of early adolescents and their parents. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to test both sex role attitude development and behavior development models. Only the models for attitude development were significant. The level of traditionalism of female sex role attitude development was significantly influenced by maternal employment, the level of traditionalism of the father's sex role attitudes in interaction with the amount of time he spent with his daughter, and chronological age. In contrast, the level of traditionalism of male sex role attitude development was significantly influenced by the level of traditionalism of the mother's sex role attitudes in interaction with the level of closeness to the mother that was reported by the son, and both mother's and father's perception of pubertal age. The implications of the findings for human development theory, early adolescence as a stage of development, and sex role theory and research are discussed.     

Masculinity unraveled: the roots of male gender identity and the shifting of male ego ideals throughout life

A model of masculine gender identity development is presented that demonstrates how a male's sense of his masculinity and the ambiguities of his gender are being reworked throughout his life. Of factors shaping the boy's sense of masculinity early on, particular emphasis is placed on the role of the involved father, the nature of the parental relationship, and the mother's recognition and affirmation of her son's maleness. While healthy masculine gender identity is founded predominantly on the boy's unique struggles in separating from his mother, it does not result from what has been traditionally viewed as the boy's disidentification from her (and from the feminine more generally). Indeed, boys who need to violently repudiate their identifications with their mother are more susceptible to a fragile, rigid masculine identity and narcissistic psychopathology. A case example of a young adult man illustrates the impact of identifications with both parents. The interplay of early masculine identity development and later life challenges confronting the adult male is briefly noted. "Masculine" ego ideals shift across developmental junctions until, ultimately, a more mature sense of masculinity emerges: the phallic wish to deny differentiation and maintain unlimited possibility is renounced and mourned and certain real limits concerning sex, gender, and generational differences are accepted. This reshaping of the "masculine" ego ideal consequently involves the transformation of a man's previously adaptive "phallicism" into more realistic, "genital" ego ideals-an achievement involving interplay between masculine and feminine identifications and the integration of antithetical elements no longer so unconsciously gendered.     

The Role of the Father in Anorexia

The literature on anorexia often overlooks the important role of the father in the complex etiology of the illness. This paper examines the father's role and how it impacts on the psychological development of his anorectic daughter. Premorbid and comorbid personality components such as dependency, perfectionism, and high achievement, are shown to be influenced by the father. His role is again significant at the onset of adolescence, when his daughter needs his affirmation as she struggles to make the transition from childhood to womanhood. Socialization of the sexes is implicated in hindering the father/daughter relationship, as is the father's fear of sexual attraction to his developing daughter. The effect of a patriarchal society on the development of anorexia in girls is also explored. The nature of the society we live in is thought to further complicate the anorectic girl's relationship with her father.     

Adolescents' compliance-resistance: effects of parents' compliance strategy and gender

This investigation determined choice of compliance-resisting behaviors on the basis of compliance-gaining strategy, gender of parent, and gender of adolescent. One hundred and eighteen 9th- through 12th-grade students identified resistance strategies they would use when confronted with five compliance-gaining attempts: manipulation, nonnegotiation, emotional appeal, personal rejection, and empathic understanding. Each compliance-gaining attempt was associated with a specific parent and a specific compliance-gaining strategy. The results demonstrate significant differences in resistance strategy selected on the basis of parent's gender, adolescent's gender, and compliance-gaining strategy. When mothers employed personal rejection or empathic understanding, the adolescent was most likely to use nonnegotiation. When the mother used an emotional appeal, adolescents used identity management. Fathers who employed manipulation by using an emotional appeal were resisted with justification. When fathers used nonnegotiation or personal rejection, adolescents used nonnegotiation. The father's use of empathic understanding was countered with identity management. Adolescents are more likely to use identity management with their mothers and justification with their fathers. Female adolescents are more likely to use identity management than are male adolescents, while males are more likely to use nonnegotiation and negotiation than are females. Nonnegotiation occurs most often from son to mother, followed by son to father, daughter to father, and daughter to mother.     

Observers' reaction to parent-child intimacy

A study was carried out to examine how people react to acts of intimacy between parent and child. Based on an extensive series of studies reported in 1998 by Reis who found less intimate interactions between two men who are friends than between men or women or between two women who are friends, it was reasoned that intimacy between two males may violate norms of our culture, so it was predicted that people would react less favorably to intimacy between father and son than to intimacy between father and daughter, mother and daughter, or mother and son. Men (n = 19) and women (n=26), most of whom were 18-24 years of age, read versions of a mother or father having an intimate interaction (lap-sit, hair-stroke, hug/kiss) with an 11-yr.-old daughter or son and then rated the act on a 7-point scale from good to bad. As predicted, the undergraduates rated intimate interactions between father and son less favorably than those between father and daughter, mother and daughter, and mother and son.