A Theory of Affective Communication: On the Phenomenological Foundations of Perspective Taking

Although some scholars acknowledge the decisive role of the felt body in the process of perspective taking, the precise role of the felt body remains unclear. In this paper, a theory of affective communication is developed in order to explain and understand the process of perspective taking in human interaction on a corporeal, pre-reflective and thus affective level. The key assumption of the outlined theory is that any process of perspective taking is essentially based on the two dimensions of the felt body, namely (1) attraction and repulsion, (2) dominance and subdominance. The dimension of attraction and repulsion determines whether individuals (or groups) attractively converge or repulsively diverge in their perspectives. Regarding the dimension of dominance and subdominance, it is assumed that there is always a dominant and a subdominant side in human interaction. In the case of attraction as a necessary condition for finding common ground, the dominant side serves as the perspective giver and the subdominant side serves as the perspective taker. The outlined theory is phenomenologically based on the works of Schmitz and Rappe and marks a contribution to the research program of neophenomenological sociology.     

An n-dimensional Weber Law and the Corresponding Fechner Law

Weber's law of 1834, DeltaS/S=c for the just noticeable difference (jnd), can be written as S+DeltaS=kS, k=1+c. It follows that the stimulus decrement required to elicit one jnd of sensation is S-DeltaS*=k(-1)S. If generalized for two stimulus dimensions and two corresponding response dimensions, Weber's law would have to state such equations for all directions of change in the plane. A two-dimensional Weber law with exactly these properties is realized by [S(x)+DeltaS(x)(straight theta), S(y)+DeltaS(y)(straight theta)]=[k(sin(straight theta))S(x), k(cos(straight theta))S(y)] which determines the stimulus coordinates for all stimuli just noticeably different from the stimulus (S(x), S(y)) in all directions 0R(2)) is [x, y]mapsto[log(k)(x), log(k)(y)]. The solution is generalized to arbitrarily many dimensions by substituting the sin and cos in the generalized Weber law by the standard coordinates of a unit vector. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.     

Application of optimal sign-vectors to reliability and cluster analysis

Expressions involving optimal sign vectors are derived so as to yield two new applications. First, coefficient alpha for the sign-weighted composite is maximized in analogy to Lord's scale-independent solution with differential weights. Second, optimal sign vectors are used to define two groups of objects that are maximally distinct in terms of a function of the squared euclidean distances between groups. An efficient computing algorithm is described along with several examples.This research was supported in part by a research grant (DA 01070) from the U. S. Public Health Service.     

Social Dominance Orientation Relates to Believing Men Should Dominate Sexually, Sexual Self-Efficacy, and Taking Free Female Condoms Among Undergraduate Women and Men

Gendered-based power affects heterosexual relationships, with beliefs in the U.S. prescribing that men dominate women sexually. We draw on social dominance theory to examine whether women??s and men??s level of support for group-based hierarchy (i.e., social dominance orientation; SDO) helps explain gender-based power beliefs and dynamics in heterosexual relationships. We conducted a laboratory study at a Northeastern U.S. university among 357 women and 126 men undergraduates who reported being heterosexual and sexually active, testing three sets of hypotheses. First, as hypothesized, women endorsed SDO and the belief that men should dominate sexually less than men did. Second, as hypothesized, among women and men, SDO was positively correlated with the belief that men should dominate sexually, and negatively correlated with sexual self-efficacy (confidence in sexual situations) and number of female condoms (a woman-controlled source of protection) taken. Third, structural equation modeling, controlling for age, family income, number of sexual partners in the past month, and perceived HIV/AIDS risk, supported the hypothesis that among women and men, the belief that men should dominate sexually mediates SDO??s association with sexual self-efficacy. The hypothesis that the belief that men should dominate sexually mediates SDO??s association with number of female condoms taken was supported for women only. The hypothesis that sexual self-efficacy mediates SDO??s association with number of female condoms taken was not supported. Results suggest SDO influences power beliefs and dynamics in heterosexual relationships. Although female condoms are an important woman-controlled source of protection, power-related beliefs may pose a challenge to their use.     

Interictal and postictal performances on dichotic listening test in children with focal epilepsy

Dichotic listening test (DL) is an important tool to disclose speech dominance in healthy subjects and in clinical cases. The aim of this study was to probe if focal epilepsy in children reveals a corresponding suppression of the ear reports contralateral to seizure onset site. Thus, 15 children and adolescents with clinically and electroencephalographically diagnosed focal epilepsy selected for left-hemisphere speech dominance without mental retardation were compared to matched controls according to age, gender, IQ and handedness. All children were assessed with DL for three times: Interictally (t(0)), postictally 5' (t(1)) and 1h (t(2)). At t(0), all groups revealed a right ear advantage (REA), indicating a left-hemisphere speech dominance. There was a continuous increase in right correct score (REC) over the trials for normal controls. Five minutes postictally, there was an abrupt decrease in REC with a sustained left ear correct score (LEC) for children with epilepsy, independent of which side suffered from seizures. This effect was maintained even after 1h. Thus, in children with left-hemisphere speech dominance the epileptic discharges caused a suppression of REC regardless of origin. The seizures may have a prolonged impact on attention and auditory perception for a considerable time after consciousness has been regained.     

Exploring the effects of EEG signals on collision cases happening in the process of young drivers’ braking

Detecting mental states in drivers offers an opportunity to reduce accidents by triggering alerts and signaling the need for rest or renewed focus. Here we used electroencephalography (EEG) to measure brain signals in young drivers operating a driving simulator to detect mental states and predict accidents. We measured reaction times to unexpected hazardous events and correlated them with EEG signals measured from the frontal, parietal, and temporal cortices as well as the central sulcus (corresponding to motor cortex). We found that EEG signals in the relative beta (power in beta (13–30 Hz) relative to total power of the EEG (0.5–30 Hz)), alpha/delta, alpha/theta, beta/delta, beta/theta frequency bands were higher for collisions than successful collision avoidance, and that the key decision-making period is the 2nd second before braking. Importantly, a decision tree classifier trained on these neural signals predicted collision avoidance outcomes. Then based on random forest model, we extracted three critical neural signals (beta/delta_frontal, relative beta_parietal and relative beta_central Sulcus) to classify collision avoidance outcomes. Our findings suggest measuring EEG during driving may provide useful signals for enhancing driver safety.     

A functional equation analysis of two learning models

One-absorbing barrier random walks arising from Luce's nonlinear beta model for learning and a linear commuting-operator model (called the alpha model) are considered. Functional equations for various statistics are derived from the branching processes defined by the two models. Solutions to general functional equations, satisfied by statistics of the alpha and beta models, are obtained. The methods presented have application to other learning models.Abstracted from portions of the author's doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, June 1960. The author is indebted to Robert R. Bush, his dissertation supervisor for the valuable help and encouragement received from him and to R. Duncan Luce for many helpful discussions and for partial support from an NSF grant.The author is grateful to J. G. Brainerd, S. Gorn, and C. N. Weygandt of the Moore School, and N. F. Finkelstein, D. Parkhill and A. A. Wolf of General Dynamics for their encouragement.     

The information for catching fly balls: judging and intercepting virtual balls in a CAVE

Visually guided action implies the existence of information as well as a control law relating that information to movement. For ball catching, the Chapman Strategy--keeping constant the rate of change of the tangent of the elevation angle (d(tan(alpha))/dt)--leads a catcher to the right location at the right time to intercept a fly ball. Previous studies showed the ability to detect the information and the consistency of running patterns with the use of the strategy. However, only direct manipulation of information can show its use. Participants were asked to intercept virtual balls in a Cave Automated Virtual Environment (CAVE) or to judge whether balls would pass behind or in front of them. Catchers in the CAVE successfully intercepted virtual balls with their forehead. Furthermore, the timing of judgments was related to the patterns of changing d(tan(alpha))/dt. The advantages and disadvantages of a CAVE as a tool for studying interceptive action are discussed.     

Completeness theorems for some intermediate predicate calculi

We give completeness results — with respect to Kripke's semantic — for the negation-free intermediate predicate calculi: (1) $$\begin{gathered} BD = positive predicate calculus PQ + B:(\alpha \to \beta )v(\beta \to \alpha ) \hfill \\ + D:\forall x\left( {a\left( x \right)v\beta } \right) \to \forall xav\beta \hfill \\ \end{gathered}$$ (2) $$T_n D = PQ + T_n :\left( {a_0 \to a_1 } \right)v \ldots v\left( {a_n \to a_{n + 1} } \right) + D\left( {n \geqslant 0} \right)$$ and the superintuitionistic predicate calculus: (3) $$B^1 DH_2^ \urcorner = BD + intuitionistic negation + H_2^ \urcorner : \urcorner \forall xa \to \exists x \urcorner a.$$ The central point is the completeness proof for (1), which is obtained modifying Klemke's construction [3]. For a general account on negation-free intermediate predicate calculi — see Casari-Minari [1]; for an algebraic treatment of some superintuitionistic predicate calculi involving schemasB andD — see Horn [4] and Görnemann [2].     

Social status, masculinity, and testosterone in young men

Among other things, sexual selection theory posits that in species with limited male parental investment, males should evolve biological mechanisms to competitively dominate or otherwise compete with one another. It is unclear whether such proposed mechanisms would influence status hierarchies in small human groups. We report the results of a study investigating possible effects of prenatal (index-to-ring finger length ratio or 2D:4D) and salivary testosterone, and masculine identification, on status among 71 male college students living in nine residential groups. The results indicate no role of either prenatal or salivary testosterone in maintaining status hierarchies in these groups. A possible explanation is that peer-assessed status in these groups was arrived at cooperatively rather than through dominance contests.     

Hemispheric Asymmetry and Regional Differences in Electroencephalographic Alpha Activity at the Wake-Sleep Transition

Electroencephalographic (EEG) alpha activity at the wake-sleep transition was studied in six right-handed adults in terms of hemispheric asymmetry and regional differences. Twelve-channel EEGs with linked mastoid references were recorded together with horizontal and vertical electro-oculograms (EOGs). Two types of alpha coefficient were obtained every 5.12 s by computing the relative proportion of right vs. left alpha band power and of anterior vs. posterior alpha band power. Four stages were scored using EEG sleep patterns (theta waves, vertex sharp waves, spindles, and K complex) and slow eye movement (SEM): stage W had neither EEG sleep patterns nor SEM; stage D1 had SEM and no EEG sleep patterns; stage D2 had theta waves or vertex sharp waves and SEM; stage S had spindles or K complex without SEM. It was found that the two types of alpha coefficient changed as a function of EEG-EOG stage and were correlated. Right-decreased and anterior-shifted alpha activities were manifest at stages D2 and S. Drowsiness was considered to be a heterogeneous state, exhibiting different spatial changes in alpha activity between stages D1 and D2.     

Response patterning during stimulus generalization in the rat

Nine rats were trained to bar press in the presence of a clicking sound of 6.67 cps (S(D)) for 1-min variable-interval food reinforcement randomly alternated with a clicking sound of 20 cps (S(Delta)) signifying extinction. After a criterion of 90% of total responses in the presence of the S(D) was obtained, a generalization test was administered, including values of 6.67, 10.00, 13.33, and 20.00 cps, with responses in the presence of the S(D) continuing to be reinforced during testing. The test yielded a gradient of response strength with rate highest in the presence of the S(D) and decreasing with increasing distance from this value. An interresponse time (IRT) analysis of responding during generalization testing revealed no systematic differences in modal IRT category or in median IRT to the different test stimuli. Mean IRT was lowest in the presence of the S(D) and increased systematically with increasing distance from this value, supporting the hypothesis that the generalization gradient of response rate is primarily the result of an increasing proportion of "long" IRT responses to stimuli increasingly distant from the S(D).     

Analyses of multinomial mixture distributions: new tests for stochastic models of cognition and action

Mixture distributions are formed from a weighted linear combination of 2 or more underlying basis distributions [g(x) = sigma j alpha j fj(x); sigma alpha j = 1]. They arise frequently in stochastic models of perception, cognition, and action in which a finite number of discrete internal states are entered probabilistically over a series of trials. This article reviews various distributional properties that have been examined to test for the presence of mixture distributions. A new multinomial maximum likelihood mixture (MMLM) analysis is discussed for estimating the mixing probabilities alpha j and the basis distributions fj(x) of a hypothesized mixture distribution. The analysis also generates a maximum likelihood goodness-of-fit statistic for testing various mixture hypotheses. Stochastic computer simulations characterize the statistical power of such tests under representative conditions. Two empirical studies of mental processes hypothesized to involve mixture distributions are summarized to illustrate applications of the MMLM analysis.     

The dominance dilemma: Do women really prefer dominant mates?

Previous research has led to a widely accepted conclusion that heterosexual women prefer mates who are high in dominance. Three experiments designed to distinguish dominance from prestige and examine moderating contextual factors challenge this conclusion. College women at 2 U.S. universities evaluated hypothetical, potential mates described in written vignettes. Participants in Study 1 preferred a high‐prestige to a high‐dominance target. With dominance and prestige manipulated independently in Study 2, participants preferred high to low prestige but also preferred low to high dominance. Participants in Study 3 preferred high to low dominance, but only (a) when displayed in the context of an athletic competition and (b) in ratings of attractiveness and desirability as a short‐term (vs. long‐term) mate.     

Michael Balint's Group Approach: The Boston Balint Group

Michael Balint was a physician/psychoanalyst who trained in Hungary and emigrated to England in 1939 when Nazi Germany began to dominate Europe. At the Tavistock Clinic, he and his wife met with social workers and physicians around case discussion seminars. With his strong interest in medicine and his curiosity about the patient-physician relationship, he initiated research/training groups with interested physicians, which ultimately led to publication of the now-classic The Doctor, His Patient, and the Illness, a rich text that has become a virtual staple of family practice residencies, along with Balint Groups for training. Balint refrained from considering his groups psychotherapy in order to minimize resistance of his physician-students. But because the groups lasted sometimes for years and explored transference and countertransference in patient-physician relationships, he acknowledged that the result was personal growth of the participants. His techniques are described and an example of a Balint Group (Boston Group) are presented here.     

Hemispheric specialization and creative thinking: A meta-analytic review of lateralization of creativity

In the last two decades research on the neurophysiological processes of creativity has found contradicting results. Whereas most research suggests right hemisphere dominance in creative thinking, left-hemisphere dominance has also been reported. The present research is a meta-analytic review of the literature to establish how creative thinking relates to relative hemispheric dominance. The analysis was performed on the basis of a non-parametric vote-counting approach and effect-size calculations of Cramer’s phi suggest relative dominance of the right hemisphere during creative thinking. Moderator analyses revealed no difference in predominant right-hemispheric activation for verbal vs. figural tasks, holistic vs. analytical tasks, and context-dependent vs. context-independent tasks. Suggestions for further investigations with the meta-analytic and neuroscience methodologies to answer the questions of left hemispheric activation and further moderation of the effects are discussed.     

Type D assessment in patients with chronic heart failure and peripheral arterial disease: evaluation of the experimental DS(3) scale using item response theory

Type D personality refers to a clustering of 2 stable personality traits, namely negative affectivity and social inhibition. Currently Type D is standardly assessed using the DS14. An experimental Type D personality scale, the DS((3)), was developed to examine an avenue for assessing Type D more efficiently. The DS((3)) differs from the DS14 in its use of a 3-point Likert scale to rate responses, use of all negatively worded items, and a rearranged presentation of items. This article examines the psychometric properties of this questionnaire by examining its dimensionality, item and scale properties, and cutoff scores to screen for Type D personality. Data from 2 clinical samples were analyzed using item response theory. The results suggest that the DS((3)) is a potentially suitable instrument for Type D assessment. It has high reliability, and Type D personality classification based on this scale corresponds well with the current standard Type D assessment based on the DS14.     

Scaling affordances for human reach actions

A methodology developed by Cesari and Newell [Cesari, P., & Newell, K. M. (1999). The scaling of human grip configuration. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 25, 927-935; Cesari, P., & Newell, K. M. (2000). The body-scaling of grip configurations in children aged 6-12 years. Developmental Psychobiology 36, 301-310] was used to delineate the roles of an object's weight (W) and distance (D) as well as the actor's strength (S) in determining the macroscopic action used to reach for the object. Participants reached for objects of five different weights placed at 10 distances. The findings of a single discriminant analysis revealed that when object weight is scaled in terms of each individual's strength and reach distance is scaled in terms of each individual's maximum-seated reach distance, a single discriminant analysis was able to predict 90% of the reach modes used by both men and women. The result of the discriminant analysis was used to construct a body-scaled equation, K=lnD+ln(W/S)/36, similar in form to the one derived by Cesari and Newell, accurately predicted the reach action used. Our findings indicate that Cesari and Newell's method can identify a complex relationship between geometric and dynamic constraints that determine the affordances for different reach actions.     

Some effects of the conditioned suppression paradigm on operant discrimination performance

Three experiments were conducted with rats to determine the effects of electric shock on responding during an operant discrimination. In two of these experiments, a conditioned suppression procedure was superimposed upon a stimulus signalling the availability of food reinforcement (S(D)). Response rates were greatly suppressed, not only in the warning signal periods which preceded each shock, but in the presence of S(D), and the stimulus signalling the unavailability of reinforcement (S(Delta)) as well. A third experiment, in which a very mild shock was used without a warning signal, demonstrated an increased response rate in S(D) and S(Delta), although this effect was rather unsystematic. In a similar study, Hearst (1965) found an increased rate in S(Delta) independent of any change in the S(D) rate. The present study failed to obtain Hearst's effect but illustrated a suppressive effect with a similar procedure.     

Incentive processes and the peak shift

Intradimensional operant discrimination schedules were employed, which eliminated the covariation of response and reinforcement rates that are found on most operant baselines. In Phase 1, one keylight (S(1)) controlled an increase in pigeons' treadle pressing, relative to another keylight (S(2)), while being correlated with a decrease in frequency of reinforcement. In Phase 2 both treadle pressing and reinforcement increased in the presence of one keylight, relative to the second. In Phase 1 the relatively flat treadle-press generalization gradients peaked at S(1), whereas the peaks of those in Phase 2 were shifted from S(1) in a direction away from S(2). It was postulated that these positive and negative stimulus-reinforcement contingencies influence the likelihood of obtaining peak shift through the operation of a classically conditioned "central motive state." How response-reinforcement and stimulus-reinforcement contingencies might contribute to the development of inhibitory effects of S(2) is discussed. Autoshaped key pecking also was produced by these procedures. During manipulations of stimuli, the gradients obtained for autoshaped key pecking were narrow and sharply peaked at the food-correlated stimulus (S(2)) in Phase 1. This failure to obtain peak shift for an elicited response suggests a difference in discriminative processes operating in classical and instrumental learning.