Increasing the conspicuity of cyclists at night by using bicycle lights and clothing to highlight their biological motion to oncoming drivers

Reduced conspicuity is an important contributing factor to increased motor vehicle-bicycle crashes and cyclist fatalities at night. This study explored ways of making night-time cyclists more conspicuous to oncoming vehicles through cyclist clothing options and bicycle light position. Fifteen young participants (M = 29.1 ± 4.5 years) drove a closed-road at night and indicated when they first recognized a cyclist pedalling in place at the roadside, facing the approaching vehicle. The bicycle had a static forward-facing white light located either on the handlebars or the helmet and wore one of five clothing configurations: fluorescent vest, retroreflective vest, retroreflective ankle strips, retroreflective vest plus retroreflective ankle strips, retroreflective vest plus biomotion retroreflective strips. There was a significant effect of light position (p < 0.001) and clothing (p < 0.001), where recognition distances were longer when the light was helmet-mounted and when retroreflective strips were worn on the lower legs to highlight the cyclist’s biological motion compared to either of the vest conditions. There was also a significant interaction between light position and clothing (p = 0.007) such that the benefit of retroreflective strips was greater when the bicycle light was helmet-mounted rather than on the handlebars. Importantly, the benefits of leg markings were apparent even when positioned at the ankles alone. These findings highlight that retroreflective material is most useful for improving cyclist conspicuity at night when positioned on cyclists’ lower legs, particularly the ankles (highlighting the cyclist's pedalling motion), rather than on the torso, and have important practical implications for maximising cyclists’ conspicuity and hence safety on night-time roads.     

Bias to experience approaching motion in a three-dimensional virtual environment

We used two-frame apparent motion in a three-dimensional virtual environment to test whether observers had biases to experience approaching or receding motion in depth. Observers viewed a tunnel of tiles receding in depth, that moved ambiguously either toward or away from them. We found that observers exhibited biases to experience approaching motion. The strengths of the biases were decreased when stimuli pointed away, but size of the display screen had no effect. Tests with diamond-shaped tiles that varied in the degree of pointing asymmetry resulted in a linear trend in which the bias was strongest for stimuli pointing toward the viewer, and weakest for stimuli pointing away. We show that the overall bias to experience approaching motion is consistent with a computational strategy of matching corresponding features between adjacent foreshortened stimuli in consecutive visual frames. We conclude that there are both adaptational and geometric reasons to favor the experience of approaching motion.     

The stability of alexithymia during work in a high‐stress environment: A prospective study of Swedish peacekeepers serving in Kosovo

Larsson, M. R., Bäckström, M., Michel, P.‐O. & Lundh, L.‐G. (2010). The stability of alexithymia during work in a high‐stress environment: A prospective study of Swedish peacekeepers serving in Kosovo. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. We applied a prospective design to reinvestigate the issue whether the sub‐domains of alexithymia could be considered stable traits or distress‐related states. Assessments of alexithymia and subjective distress were conducted before deployment to Kosovo in a sample of male peacekeepers. A second assessment was conducted approximately six months later during the final phase of service. The results showed evidence of moderate to high relative stability in all alexithymic sub‐domains. It was also found that a relative change in subjective distress predicted a relative change in difficulty identifying feelings and difficulty describing feelings but not in externally oriented thinking. We suggest therefore that the alexithymic sub‐domains could be considered relatively stable traits but that the level of difficulty identifying and describing feeling varies with the level of subjective distress.     

Using a Kinect sensor to acquire biological motion: Toolbox and evaluation

Biological motion (BM) is the movement of animate entities, which conveys rich social information. To obtain pure BM, researchers nowadays predominantly use point-light displays (PLDs), which depict BM through a set of light points (e.g., 12 points) placed at distinct joints of a moving human body. Most prevalent BM stimuli are created by state-of-the-art motion capture systems. Although these stimuli are highly precise, the motion capture system is expensive and bulky, and its process of constructing a PLD-based BM is time-consuming and complex. These factors impede the investigation of BM mechanisms. In this study, we propose a free Kinect-based biological motion capture (KBC) toolbox based on the Kinect Sensor 2.0 in C++. The KBC toolbox aims to help researchers acquire PLD-based BM in an easy, low-cost, and user-friendly way. We conducted three experiments to examine whether KBC-generated BM can genuinely reflect the processing characteristics of BM: (1)?Is BM from this source processed globally in vision? (2)?Does its BM (e.g., from the feet) retain detailed local information? and (3)?Does the BM convey emotional information? We obtained positive results in response to all three questions. Therefore, we think that the KBC toolbox can be useful in generating BM for future research.     

Children and adults' distance estimations in a large-scale environment: effects of time and clutter

In two experiments adults (mean age = 19-5), sixth graders (mean age = 11-8), fourth graders (mean age = 9-8), and second graders (mean age = 7-8) walked a straight line distance through a large-scale environment. Subjects were then asked to estimate the time taken to traverse each half of the walk and to estimate the distance between objects seen along the walk. In Experiment 1 each half of the walk was traversed in the same amount of time but contained a different number of objects (clutter). Time and distance estimates were related, but were not affected by the number of intervening objects encountered between locations. In Experiment 2 subjects again encountered a different number of objects along each half of the walk but each half was traversed in varying amounts of time. Again, time and distance estimates were related, and there was no clutter effect. There were no consistent developmental differences across the two experiments. It was concluded that (1) Thorndyke's clutter effect does not occur across all types of spatial cognition tasks, and (2) children and adults tend to relate time and distance across a variety of distance estimation tasks.     

Empowering high‐risk clients to attain a better quality of life: a career resiliency framework

Career counselors frequently encounter clients who are at high risk for career and life development difficulties. Research suggests there is a connection between resiliency and successful career development in high‐risk clients. Many high‐risk individuals have poor decision‐making skills and lack motivation to succeed in life and career development. This article describes a career resiliency framework in which career resiliency is best understood within the context of psychological resiliency. Specifically, this article explicates how career counseling from a resiliency theory perspective may promote successful career development for populations dealing with multiple barriers.     

Sleep arrangements and night waking at 6 and 12 months in relation to infants' stress‐induced cortisol responses

The objective of this short‐term longitudinal study was to examine the concurrent and prospective associations of infants' sleep arrangements and night waking with cortisol responses to an inoculation at 6 and 12 months, controlling for several key covariates. To our knowledge, this was the first study to concurrently and prospectively link proximity in sleep arrangements and night waking to physiological stress reactivity. A sample of 92 mother–infant dyads participated in the study when the infants were 6 and 12 months of age, although sample sizes were reduced for some analyses. Both proximal cosleeping arrangements and more frequent night wakings' were associated concurrently with an increased cortisol response to inoculations at both ages. Night waking at 6 months also was associated with a slightly increased cortisol response to inoculation at 12 months. Results aimed at exploring the direction of influence suggested that cosleeping and night waking may influence infant stress physiology rather than the reverse. Adaptive and maladaptive implications of infants' nocturnal experiences and greater stress‐induced cortisol responses are discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

First‐perspective alignment effects in a computer‐simulated environment

In Experiment 1, participants explored two desktop, virtual environments (VEs), each comprising three city streets connected at right angles; for each participant one VE was open and one was enclosed. Following the first VE exploration, orientation estimates to remembered test locations were most accurate when participants imagined themselves aligned, rather than 90° misaligned or 180° or contra‐aligned, with the first part of the route. In the second VE, the effect was attenuated and the data pattern conformed to that anticipated from an orientation‐free memory. Experiment 2 followed the procedure of Experiment 1, but omitted the alignment tests after the first VE; following the second VE exploration, orientation estimates presented a similar pattern to those in first test of Experiment 1. These data are discussed in terms of cognitive load.     

Opinion leadership in a computer‐mediated environment

This paper investigates the characteristics of opinion leaders within the computer‐mediated environment, analyses the differences between online opinion leaders and online non‐leaders and examines the implications of opinion leadership theory for e‐commerce. This study finds that opinion leaders in computer‐mediated environments possess significantly higher levels of enduring involvement, innovativeness, exploratory behaviour and self‐perceived knowledge than non‐leaders. Online opinion leaders also possess greater computer skills, have used the internet for a longer period of time and use the internet more frequently for longer sessions than non‐leaders. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Longitudinal study of perception of structured optic flow and random visual motion in infants using high‐density EEG

Electroencephalogram (EEG) was used in infants at 3–4 months and 11–12 months to longitudinally study brain electrical activity as the infants were exposed to structured forwards and reversed optic flow, and non‐structured random visual motion. Analyses of visual evoked potential (VEP) and temporal spectral evolution (TSE, time‐dependent amplitude changes) were performed on EEG data recorded with a 128‐channel sensor array. VEP results showed infants to significantly differentiate between the radial motion conditions, but only at 11–12 months where they showed shortest latency for forwards optic flow and longest latency for random visual motion. When the TSE results of the motion conditions were compared with those of a static non‐flow dot pattern, infants at 3–4 and 11–12 months both showed significant differences in induced activity. A decrease in amplitudes at 5–7 Hz was observed as desynchronized theta‐band activity at both 3–4 and 11–12 months, while an increase in amplitudes at 9–13 Hz was observed as synchronized alpha‐band activity only at 11–12 months. It was concluded that brain electrical activities related to visual motion perception change during the first year of life, and these changes can be observed both in the VEP and induced activities of EEG. With adequate neurobiological development and locomotor experience infants around 1 year of age rely, more so than when they were younger, on structured optic flow and show a more adult‐like specialization for motion where faster oscillating cell assemblies have fewer but more specialized neurons, resulting in improved visual motion perception.     

The missing explanation of the false‐belief advantage in bilingual children: a longitudinal study

Bilingual preschoolers often perform better than monolingual children on false‐belief understanding. It has been hypothesized that this is due to their enhanced executive function skills, although this relationship has rarely been tested or supported. The current longitudinal study tested whether metalinguistic awareness was responsible for this advantage. Further, we examined the contributions of both executive functioning and language ability to false‐belief understanding by including multiple measures of both. Seventy‐eight children (n = 40 Spanish‐English bilingual; age M = 49.29, SD = 7.38 and, n = 38 English monolingual; age M = 47.75, SD = 6.86) were tested. A year later the children were tested again (n = 22 bilingual, n = 25 monolingual). The results indicated that language and executive function (inhibitory control) at time 1 were related to false belief in monolinguals at time 2. In contrast, bilinguals' metalinguistic performance at time 1 was the sole predictor of false belief at time 2. The different linguistic and cognitive profiles of monolinguals and bilinguals may create different pathways for their development of false‐belief understanding. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at: https://youtu.be/vILn2gKjFxw     

Morningness‐eveningness and educational outcomes: the lark has an advantage over the owl at high school

Background. Chronotype refers to individuals’ preference for morning or evening activities. Its two dimensions (morningness and eveningness) are related to a number of academic outcomes. Aims. The main goal of the study was to investigate the incremental validity of chronotype as a predictor of academic achievement after controlling for a number of traditional predictors. In so doing, a further aim was ongoing validation of a chronotype questionnaire, the Lark‐Owl Chronotype Indicator. Sample. The sample comprised 272 students attending 9th and 10th grades at five German high schools. Data was also obtained from 132 parents of these students. Method. Students were assessed in class via self‐report questionnaires and a standardized cognitive test. Parents filled out a questionnaire at home. The incremental validity of chronotype was investigated using hierarchical linear regression. Validity of the chronotype questionnaire was assessed by correlating student ratings of their chronotype with behavioural data on sleep, food intake, and drug consumption and with parent ratings of chronotype. Results. Eveningness was a significant (negative) predictor of overall grade point average (GPA), math–science GPA, and language GPA, after cognitive ability, conscientiousness, need for cognition, achievement motivation, and gender were held constant. Validity evidence for the chronotype measure was established by significant correlations with parent‐ratings and behavioural data. Conclusions. Results point to the possible discrimination of adolescents with a proclivity towards eveningness at school. Possible explanations for the relationship between chronotype and academic achievement are presented. Implications for educational practice are also discussed.     

Telling and detecting lies in a high‐stake situation: the case of a convicted murderer

All deception studies published to date have been laboratory studies. In such studies people lied only for the sake of the experiment, consequently the stakes were usually low. Although research has shown that most spontaneous lies told in real life are trivial, such studies tell us little about lies where the stakes are high (such as police/suspect interviews). In Study 1, we discuss the behaviour of an actual suspect while he was interviewed by the police in a murder case. Although the man initially denied knowing and killing the victim, substantial evidence obtained by the police showed that he was lying. On the basis of this evidence, the man confessed to killing the victim and was later convicted for murder. To our knowledge there has been no other study published that has analysed the behaviour of a liar in such a high‐stake realistic setting. The analysis revealed several cues to deception. In Study 2, we exposed 65 police officers to six fragments (three truthful and three deceptive) of the interview with the murderer and asked them to indicate after each fragment whether the man was lying or not. The findings revealed that the participants were better at detecting truths (70% accuracy) than lies (57% accuracy). We also found individual differences among observers, with those holding popular stereotypical views on deceptive behaviour, such as ‘liars look away’ and ‘liars fidget’ performing least effectively as lie catchers. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Habituation in high‐risk infants: reliability and patterns of responding

We examined both the reliability of infant‐controlled habituation and patterns of responding in a group of high‐risk infants (mean age 16 mos). Good test–retest reliability was found for mean, total, and baseline looking time for one of the stimuli. Classification of infants' pattern of performance yielded two groups: linear (57%) and non‐linear (29%) responders; 14% of cases could not be classified because of cross‐session inconsistencies in performance. Linear responders had shorter total looking times, fewer trials to criterion, and showed more habituation than non‐linear responders, thus validating the linear/non‐linear distinction. Our findings indicate that the infant‐controlled habituation task can be used reliably with infants who are at high risk for developmental disorders. Indeed, we provide evidence that this task is not only reliable, but may also provide meaningful distinctions between infants within the high‐risk population. Discussion focuses on the role of attention in distinguishing between short (linear) and long (non‐linear) lookers. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A pediatric screening instrument to detect problematic infant–parent interactions: Initial reliability and validity in a sample of high‐ and low‐risk infants

The purpose of this study was to determine the initial reliability and validity of a screening instrument developed to detect problematic interactions between infants and parents as part of a pediatric well‐baby exam. Participants included 117 infant–mother dyads (57 preterms and 60 full terms) assessed when infants were 6 to 9 months old. Mothers and infants were observed playing an interactional game such as peek‐a‐boo during the course of the pediatric exam. The game was scored for degree of interactional reciprocity using the Pediatric Infant Parent Exam (PIPE). Acceptable levels of interrater reliability were achieved. As predicted, higher risk infants and their mothers exhibited more problematic interactions than lower risk infants and their mothers. Results indicated that the PIPE was a reliable means of screening for interactional difficulties, that was sensitive to, but not synonymous with, neonatal health indices. ©2001 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

Concurrent variable‐interval variable‐ratio schedules in a dynamic choice environment

Most studies of operant choice have focused on presenting subjects with a fixed pair of schedules across many experimental sessions. Using these methods, studies of concurrent variable‐ interval variable‐ratio schedules helped to evaluate theories of choice. More recently, a growing literature has focused on dynamic choice behavior. Those dynamic choice studies have analyzed behavior on a number of different time scales using concurrent variable‐interval schedules. Following the dynamic choice approach, the present experiment examined performance on concurrent variable‐interval variable‐ratio schedules in a rapidly changing environment. Our objectives were to compare performance on concurrent variable‐interval variable‐ratio schedules with extant data on concurrent variable‐interval variable‐interval schedules using a dynamic choice procedure and to extend earlier work on concurrent variable‐interval variable‐ratio schedules. We analyzed performances at different time scales, finding strong similarities between concurrent variable‐interval variable‐interval and concurrent variable‐interval variable‐ ratio performance within dynamic choice procedures. Time‐based measures revealed almost identical performance in the two procedures compared with response‐based measures, supporting the view that choice is best understood as time allocation. Performance at the smaller time scale of visits accorded with the tendency seen in earlier research toward developing a pattern of strong preference for and long visits to the richer alternative paired with brief “samples” at the leaner alternative (“fix and sample”).     

Memory for targets in a multi‐level simulated‐environment: A comparison between able‐bodied and physically disabled children

Two groups of children, one able‐bodied and the other with physical disabilities, explored a symmetrical three‐tiered virtual building that contained six distinctive target objects, two on each storey. In a subsequent test, the target objects were removed and participants were asked to make judgments of the directions to the former target locations from each floor in turn. At each test site, judgments were required for targets that were formerly on the same floor and for those on higher and lower floors. Relative tilt error scores suggested a bias for both groups, in that targets that were higher than the test location were judged as consistently lower than their actual position, whereas targets that were lower than the test location were judged as higher than their actual position. Absolute tilt errors revealed an asymmetry in both groups, with more accurate tilt errors for judgments directed to lower than higher floors. The relevance of these results for the source of the asymmetry is discussed.