Multidimensional Perfectionism and Ruminative Brooding in Current Dysphoria,Anxiety, Worry,and Anger

The current study examined links between dimensions of perfectionism, ruminative and distractive coping, and multiple measures of current distress (dysphoria, anxiety, worry, and anger) in 205 university students. A main goal was to test the hypothesis that perfectionism is related to a new measure of the critical maladaptive component of rumination (i.e., ruminative brooding) that is not confounded with symptoms and confirm that both constructs function as non-specific vulnerabilities for emotional distress. Our study revealed numerous significant findings, including: (1) socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) was the dimension most strongly related to brooding in response to depression and anxiety; (2) SPP, self-oriented perfectionism (SOP), and brooding predicted various indices of distress; (3) SOP predicted anxiety and worry in women, and it predicted dysphoria and anger in men; (4) despite the strong associations between ruminative brooding and distress, perfectionism still accounted for unique variance in distress, and vice-versa. Implications for the issue of the adaptiveness versus maladaptiveness of perfectionism and for counseling perfectionists who fall into the “brooding trap” are discussed.

Earthquake Aftershock Anxiety: An Examination of Psychosocial Contributing Factors and Symptomatic Outcomes

This study examined the direct and indirect effects of cognitions and anxiety associated with aftershocks on psychological symptoms (anxiety, depression, acute stress) and daily functioning (general and relationship). Participants were 600 adults from Christchurch, New Zealand. Data collection was approximately four months after the fatal 2011 earthquake. Path analysis was used for modelling. Socioeconomic status was directly associated with appraisals of uncontrollability of response to aftershocks. These cognitions were directly related to aftershock anxiety, which heightened general anxiety, depression, and acute stress symptoms. These symptoms were directly associated with relationship and general life dysfunction. Aftershock anxiety plays a significant role in ongoing psychological distress associated with earthquakes.     

Coping and psychological distress for men with substance use disorders

Coping with stress is a major focus for chemically dependent persons in relapse prevention programs. The relationships among coping and psychological distress were investigated in 71 men with substance use disorders, at both pre—and post-treatment. It was predicted that low task-oriented coping, high emotion-oriented coping, and high avoidance-oriented coping would predict psychological distress (e.g., anxiety and depression). It was also expected that use of task-oriented coping would increase following treatment and that use of emotion-oriented coping and avoidance-oriented coping, and reported levels of psychological distress would all decrease following treatment. Participants completed the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations and the General Health Questionnaire, took part in an intensive treatment program (e.g., relaxation, drug education, stress management) and completed these questionnaires again following treatment. Results indicated that high emotion-oriented coping predicted hypochondriasis, anxiety and depression. Task-oriented and avoidance-oriented coping did not predict psychological distress, although task-oriented coping was negatively related to hypochondriasis, anxiety and depression. The results regarding change in coping styles and levels of psychological distress were as hypothesized, except that avoidance-oriented coping did not significantly change following treatment. Theoretical and practical implications of the research are discussed.     

Coping and psychological distress for men with substance use disorders

Coping with stress is a major focus for chemically dependent persons in relapse prevention programs. The relationships among coping and psychological distress were investigated in 71 men with substance use disorders, at both pre—and post-treatment. It was predicted that low task-oriented coping, high emotion-oriented coping, and high avoidance-oriented coping would predict psychological distress (e.g., anxiety and depression). It was also expected that use of task-oriented coping would increase following treatment and that use of emotion-oriented coping and avoidance-oriented coping, and reported levels of psychological distress would all decrease following treatment. Participants completed the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations and the General Health Questionnaire, took part in an intensive treatment program (e.g., relaxation, drug education, stress management) and completed these questionnaires again following treatment. Results indicated that high emotion-oriented coping predicted hypochondriasis, anxiety and depression. Task-oriented and avoidance-oriented coping did not predict psychological distress, although task-oriented coping was negatively related to hypochondriasis, anxiety and depression. The results regarding change in coping styles and levels of psychological distress were as hypothesized, except that avoidance-oriented coping did not significantly change following treatment. Theoretical and practical implications of the research are discussed.     

Perfectionism and negative repetitive thoughts: Examining a multiple mediator model in relation to mindfulness

Perfectionism is known to be associated with various maladaptive outcomes, yet little research has examined mechanisms underlying perfectionism or potential protective factors. This study investigated worry and rumination as mediators between perfectionism and psychological distress in university students (N = 213), and related the multiple mediator model to a five-facet conceptualization of mindfulness. Socially prescribed perfectionism was related to higher levels of distress, including negative affect, depression, anxiety, and stress, while self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism appeared unrelated to distress. Mindfulness facets of acting with awareness, non-judging of inner experience, and to a lesser extent non-reactivity to inner experience, were the strongest independent contributors to perfectionism, negative repetitive thoughts, and distress. Worry and rumination mediated the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and negative affect; however, the mediating effect of rumination was absent in those high in mindfulness. These findings suggest that a mindfulness disposition may mitigate distress related to socially prescribed perfectionism by removing the mediating effect of ruminative thought. Future research might explore a mindfulness-training program to target negative repetitive thoughts underlying socially prescribed perfectionism.     

Examining the Role of Perfectionism and Intolerance of Uncertainty in Postevent Processing in Social Anxiety Disorder

Postevent processing (PEP) is proposed to be a key maintenance factor of social anxiety disorder (SAD; e.g., Clark and Wells 1995). The goal of the current study was to examine the independent roles of two transdiagnostic variables, namely perfectionism and intolerance of uncertainty (IU), as unique predictors of PEP in SAD above and beyond social anxiety and depressive symptoms. Fifty-six adults with SAD and high levels of speech anxiety completed measures of perfectionism, IU, social anxiety, and depression. They gave an impromptu speech to induce PEP, and completed measures assessing degree of PEP and its associated distress. Significant positive correlations were found between perfectionism and negative PEP degree and distress, as well as between IU and negative PEP distress. The perfectionism subscales of parental expectations and parental criticism significantly predicted negative PEP degree and distress over and above social anxiety and depressive symptoms. Perfectionism, as well as IU, were significantly and positively correlated with positive PEP distress, and significantly predicted positive PEP distress above and beyond social anxiety and depressive symptoms. The study design was cross-sectional; hence, experimental and longitudinal studies are needed to further understand the roles of perfectionism and IU as they relate to PEP. Individuals with SAD who are high in perfectionism or IU appear to be more prone to engaging in, or experiencing distress associated with, negative PEP. Specific strategies for decreasing negative PEP in this vulnerable population, especially for those high in perfectionism, may be necessary for optimal treatment outcome.     

Perfectionism, life events, and depressive symptoms: A test of a diathesis-stress model

The present research tested the hypothesis that perfectionists who experience stress are vulnerable to depression, in part because negative life events represent a failure to maintain control over negative outcomes. In Study 1, 215 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and control measures. The MPS assesses self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. It was confirmed that self-oriented and other-oriented perfectionism were associated with both higher desire for control and greater perceived personal control. Study 2 examined whether trait levels of perfectionism moderate the link between life stress and symptoms of depression. In addition, prospective analyses investigated whether perfectionism accounts for changes in levels of depressive symptomatology over time. Two samples comprised of 374 students (Sample 1) and 173 students (Sample 2) completed the MPS and measures of major life stress and depression symptoms. Subjects in Sample 2 completed these measures at two timepoints separated by a three-month interval. Regression analyses indicated that self-oriented perfectionism and life stress interact significantly to produce higher levels of depressive symptomatology. Moreover, in Sample 2, self-oriented perfectionism at Time 1 was associated with increases in depression symptoms three months later for those individuals who had experienced a major life event. The results provide support for diathesis-stress models, which maintain that perfectionists exposed to life stress are vulnerable to symptoms of depression. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the study of personality, stress, and vulnerability to symptoms of depression. This research was supported by grants #410-89-0335, #410-91-8056, and #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors.     

Resilience Mediates the Relations Between Perfectionism and College Student Distress

This study examined the relations among perfectionism dimensions, resilience, and distress. Participants were 413 undergraduate students. All 3 of Hewitt and Flett's (2004) dimensions of perfectionism were associated with greater reports of depression and anxiety; however, only socially prescribed perfectionism was significantly associated with resilience. Results indicated that resilience partially mediated the relations between socially prescribed perfectionism and distress. Implications for counselors in the prevention, assessment, and treatment of depression and anxiety are discussed.     

Perfectionism,Stress, Daily Hassles,Hopelessness, and Suicide Potential in Depressed Psychiatric Adolescents

The current study examined dimensions of perfectionism, stress, hopelessness, and suicidality in a sample of adolescent psychiatric patients diagnosed with depression. This study evaluated the unique contribution of perfectionism in predicting suicidality after considering other predictors (i.e., hopelessness, depression) and it also examined the diathesis-stress model of perfectionism and suicide. A sample of 55 adolescents (41 females, mean age = 15.53, 25.5 % ethnic/racial minorities) who were psychiatric patients completed measures including the Child-Adolescent Perfectionism Scale, subjective and objective indices of life stress, daily hassles, depression, hopelessness, suicide ideation, prior attempts and suicide potential. In addition, other informants (i.e., adolescents’ parents) completed a diagnostic interview and an interview assessing major stressful experiences. Socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., the perception that others require perfection of oneself) predicted concurrent levels of suicide potential and this association with suicide potential held even after controlling for the variances accounted for by depression and hopelessness. Hierarchical regression analyses provided partial support for the diathesis-stress model, that is, socially prescribed perfectionism interacted with daily hassles to predict concurrent suicide potential even after controlling for depression, hopelessness, and prior suicide attempt. Together, these findings suggest that socially prescribed perfectionism acts as a vulnerability factor that is predictive of suicide potential or risk among clinically depressed adolescents.     

Maladaptive perfectionism as an intervening variable between psychological control and adolescent depressive symptoms: a three-wave longitudinal study.

Maladaptive perfectionism has been postulated as an intervening variable between psychologically controlling parenting and adolescent internalizing problems. Although this hypothesis has been confirmed in a number of cross-sectional studies, it has not yet been examined from a longitudinal perspective. Findings from this 3-wave longitudinal study show that parental psychological control (as indexed by parent and adolescent reports) at age 15 years predicted increased levels of maladaptive perfectionism 1 year later. Maladaptive perfectionism, in turn, predicted increased levels of adolescent depressive symptoms again 1 year later and acted as a significant intervening variable between parental psychological control at Time 1 and depressive symptoms at Time 3. Multigroup analyses show that the model tested was consistent across gender for paternal psychological control but not for maternal psychological control. Suggestions for future research are outlined.     

Coping,life stress,and psychological and somatic distress

Theory and research have focused on the relationships among coping processes, stressful life events, and psychological and physical distress. This study was designed to examine the relationship of stressful life events and three styles of coping—emotion oriented, task oriented, and avoidance oriented—to physical and psychological distress. Questionnaires measuring coping styles, recent life stressors, and both physical symptoms and psychological symptoms were completed by 205 undergraduates (101 males and 104 females). It was hypothesized that task-oriented coping would negatively predict distress and that emotion-oriented coping would positively predict distress. The relationships of two types of avoidance-oriented coping (distraction and social diversion) to distress were also examined. Multiple regression analyses revealed that task-oriented coping was negatively related to distress, but only for males. Emotion-oriented coping was significantly positively predictive of distress for both males and females. The two subcomponents of avoidance-oriented coping—distraction and social diversion—were differentially related to measures of distress. Life event stress positively predicted distress, both as an independent contributor of variance and in interaction with several coping styles.     

Perfectionism,social problem-solving ability,and psychological distress

The present research examined the relation between dimensions of perfectionism and self-appraised problem-solving behaviors and attitudes. Specifically, in two separate studies, we tested the hypothesis that socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., the perception that others demand perfection from the self) is associated with poorer social problem-solving ability. In addition, measures of psychological adjustment were included in Study 2 so that we could (1) examine whether socially prescribed perfectionism and poorer problem-solving ability were still associated after removing variance associated with psychological distress; and (2) compare depression and anxiety in terms of their respective associations with social problem-solving ability. Correlational analyses of the data from both studies confirmed that socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with more negative self-perceptions of problem-solving orientation, and that the link between socially prescribed perfectionism and negative perceptions of problem-solving orientation remains present after removing variance due to levels of negative affectivity. Both depression and anxiety were associated with a negative problem-solving orientation, but only depression was associated with more negative appraisals of actual problem-solving skills. The results suggest that perceived exposure to imposed standards of perfection undermines the problem-solving process and that individuals with high levels of socially prescribed perfectionism are particularly in need of counseling interventions designed to provide a more positive problem-solving orientation.This research was supported by grants #410-91-0856 and #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1994 annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association in Providence, Rhode Island. The authors wish to thank Shawn Mosher for his assistance with the data collection.     

Impact of average household income and damage exposure on post‐earthquake distress and functioning: A community study following the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake

Post‐traumatic stress, depression and anxiety symptoms are common outcomes following earthquakes, and may persist for months and years. This study systematically examined the impact of neighbourhood damage exposure and average household income on psychological distress and functioning in 600 residents of Christchurch, New Zealand, 4–6 months after the fatal February, 2011 earthquake. Participants were from highly affected and relatively unaffected suburbs in low, medium and high average household income areas. The assessment battery included the Acute Stress Disorder Scale, the depression module of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ‐9), and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD‐7), along with single item measures of substance use, earthquake damage and impact, and disruptions in daily life and relationship functioning. Controlling for age, gender and social isolation, participants from low income areas were more likely to meet diagnostic cut‐offs for depression and anxiety, and have more severe anxiety symptoms. Higher probabilities of acute stress, depression and anxiety diagnoses were evident in affected versus unaffected areas, and those in affected areas had more severe acute stress, depression and anxiety symptoms. An interaction between income and earthquake effect was found for depression, with those from the low and medium income affected suburbs more depressed. Those from low income areas were more likely, post‐earthquake, to start psychiatric medication and increase smoking. There was a uniform increase in alcohol use across participants. Those from the low income affected suburb had greater general and relationship disruption post‐quake. Average household income and damage exposure made unique contributions to earthquake‐related distress and dysfunction.     

Repetitive negative thinking mediates the association between perfectionism and psychological distress

Our objective was to analyze the relationships between Repetitive negative thinking (RNT), perfectionism and psychological distress. Specifically we wanted to test if RNT mediates the relationship between perfectionism and psychological distress. 788 college students completed self-report questionnaires to evaluate perfectionism trait dimensions [Evaluative concerns (EC) and Positive strivings (PS)], RNT dimensions [Repetitive thinking (RT) and Cognitive interference and unproductivity (CIU)], perceived stress, and perceived support. Psychological distress was measured with the Profile of Mood States subscales: Depression (D), Tension–anxiety (TA), Anger–hostility (AH), Fatigue–inertia (FI) and Vigor–anxiety (VA). After controlling for perceived stress and support, perfectionism dimensions and RNT (particularly CIU) remained a significant predictors of psychological distress. CIU was a partial mediator of the relationship between EC and D, TA, AH, FI and VA and a full mediator of the relationship of PS with D and FI. Whereas the effect of negative perfectionism on emotional disturbances was potentiated by RNT, PS was only associated to it when high levels of RNT were also present. Showing that Positive striving effects on psychological distress may be a function of specific mediators, these results contribute to a better understanding of the nature of positive perfectionism.     

The Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory: Psychometric Properties and Associations with Distress and Deficits in Cognitive Self-management

Two studies were conducted to examine the psychometric properties and correlates of the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI) when administered to clinical samples. The PCI is a 25-item measure of automatic thoughts with themes involving perfectionism and beliefs that perfection should be attained. Analyses indicated that the PCI is unidimensional and it has adequate internal consistency. Correlational analyses confirmed that the PCI is associated with psychological distress and deficits in cognitive self-management, including lack of self-reinforcement, lack of a positive self-focus, and perfectionistic inflexibility. Moreover, tests of incremental validity revealed that the PCI accounts for unique variance in levels of anxiety and depression symptoms after removing variance attributable to trait perfectionism dimensions. Overall, the findings suggest that automatic thoughts involving perfectionistic themes can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner in clinical samples. Moreover, it is important to assess perfectionism cognitions as a supplement to trait perfectionism measures when evaluating the role of perfectionism in psychological distress and associated deficits in cognitive self-control. This research was supported by major research grants from Health Canada and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada to the first two authors, and a Canada Research Chair in Personality & Health awarded to the first author. The fourth author, Thomas Martin, is now deceased and this paper is dedicated to his memory.     

Perfectionism,Distress, and Irrational Beliefs in High School Students: Analyses with an Abbreviated Survey of Personal Beliefs for Adolescents

The current study examined the associations between dimensions of perfectionism and irrational beliefs in an adolescent sample. In addition, we tested the association between psychological distress and irrational beliefs in adolescents and we evaluated the feasibility of creating a modified version of the Survey of Personal Beliefs for use with adolescents. A sample of 250 adolescents (108 males, 142 females) completed the Child-Adolescent Perfectionism Scale, the Survey of Personal Beliefs, and the CES-D Depression Scale. Initial psychometric analyses yielded an abbreviated 30-item Survey of Personal Beliefs with adequate internal consistency for four of the five subscales. Our results showed that self-oriented perfectionism was associated significantly with all five irrational belief subscales, while the associations between socially prescribed perfectionism and irrational belief subscales were much smaller in magnitude. Self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, and irrational beliefs were all associated significantly with elevated distress among adolescents, and irrational beliefs predicted unique variance in distress, over and above the variance attributable to the trait perfectionism dimensions. The findings confirmed the association between perfectionism and irrational beliefs and their respective roles in psychological distress among adolescents.     

Perfectionism Cognitions, Rumination, and Psychological Distress

The current study examined the extent to which dimensions of perfectionism are associated with a ruminative response orientation and the experience of cognitive intrusions in response to stressful events. Our main goal was to test the hypothesis that individuals characterized by frequent automatic thoughts involving perfectionistic themes would also be characterized by a ruminative response orientation when distressed and they would report intrusive thoughts and images following the experience of a stressful event. A sample of 65 students completed several measures, including the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Response Styles Questionnaire, the Impact of Events Scale, and indices of depression and anxiety. Correlational analyses confirmed that high scores on the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory were correlated with a ruminative response orientation and the reported experience of intrusive thoughts and images following the experience of a stressful event. High levels of perfectionism cognitions, socially prescribed perfectionism, and rumination were also correlated with measures of depression and anxiety representingthe tripartite model. The results support the view that there is a salient cognitive aspect to perfectionism and the experience of frequent perfectionistic cognitions and related forms of rumination contribute to levels of psychological distress.     

Coping with a threat to life: A longitudinal study of self-concept,social support,and psychological distress

The relationship of self-concept (self-esteem and mastery) and social support to psychological distress was studied among 68 Israeli women immediately prior to undergoing biopsy for suspected cancer (acute stress) and 3 months later for the noncancer group (everyday stress). It was predicted that women with stronger self-concepts and more social support would experience less state depression and state anxiety during the acute crisis than women with weaker self-concepts and less social support. It was further predicted that self-concept would be more critical than social support due to the acute nature of the event. Finally, self-concept was predicted to be related to psychological distress both during the acute and everyday stress situations (a direct effect), while social support was predicted to be related to psychological distress only during the acute stress situation (a buffering effect). The hypotheses were generally confirmed. However, self-concept and social support were seen as complexly related to psychological distress during the acute phase, one not necessarily being more critical than the other. The selective employment of available resistance resources to fit the situation and implications for preventive intervention were discussed.     

Individual differences in emotion regulation moderate the associations between empathy and affective distress

Individual differences in empathy can have positive and negative psychological outcomes. Yet, individual differences in the processing and regulation of empathy-induced emotion have not been fully explored within this dynamic. This study was designed to explore whether individual differences in emotion regulation strategies moderated the effects of empathy on common forms of affective distress. Eight hundred and forty four participants completed survey measures of trait empathy, emotion regulation strategies, and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. Affective empathy typically predicted greater affective distress, but the effects on depression and anxiety were offset when people were effective at reappraising their emotions. Cognitive empathy predicted lower distress on average, but this beneficial effect on anxiety and stress was absent in those who typically suppressed their emotions. Finally, suppression unexpectedly reduced the depression and stress reported for people high in affective empathy. Individual differences in emotion regulation are an important moderator between empathy and psychological health, and thus a useful target for intervention.     

Interactive Effects of Looming Cognitive Style and Maladaptive Perfectionism on Trait Anxiety

Perfectionism is suggested as a transdiagnostic factor, related to development and maintenance of many psychological disorders. Looming Cognitive Style (LCS), on the other hand, is unique to anxiety disorders, acting as a specific a cognitive vulnerability for anxiety disorders. The present study aims to assess the association of anxiety with two cognitive vulnerability factors, LCS and maladaptive perfectionism. It was hypothesized that maladaptive perfectionism will have moderator role in the relationship between LCS and anxiety. A similar relationship is not expected for depression. Data were collected from 326 university students through self-report measures of LCS, perfectionism, anxiety, and depression. Results indicated the significant moderator roles of maladaptive perfectionism in the relationship of LCS with anxiety, even when the symptoms of depression are controlled. That is, maladaptive perfectionism was associated with higher levels of anxiety especially in individuals who had higher levels of looming vulnerability. A similar moderating effect of maladaptive perfectionism was not observed for depression. The results altogether emphasize the importance of examining the interactive effects of different vulnerability factors in understanding the mechanisms through which the risk factors operate.