Daily fluctuations in perfectionism dimensions and their relation to eating disorder symptoms

Multidimensional perfectionism has been shown to play an important role in eating disorders (EDs). However, research examining this relation has primarily focused on relatively stable inter-individual differences between persons, thereby failing to examine how these variables are associated within individuals on a daily basis. This study examines how daily fluctuations in Personal Standards (PS) perfectionism and Evaluative Concerns (EC) perfectionism relate to each other and to fluctuations in ED symptoms. Adolescents (N = 275) completed questionnaires each evening during seven consecutive days. Multilevel modeling showed significant day-to-day fluctuations in PS and EC perfectionism, and showed that both dimensions are intertwined in the day. Among females, fluctuations in EC perfectionism co-varied with fluctuations in ED symptoms.     

Perfectionism Dimensions and the Five‐factor Model of Personality

This study of university students (n = 357) and community adults (n = 223) examined personal standards (PS) and evaluative concerns (EC) higher‐order dimensions of perfectionism that underlie several measures from three different theoretical frameworks. In both students and community adults, confirmatory factor analyses supported PS perfectionism and EC perfectionism higher‐order latent factors. In relation to the revised NEO Personality Inventory, PS perfectionism was primarily related to conscientiousness and achievement striving. In contrast, EC perfectionism was primarily related to neuroticism, and lower positive emotions, trust and competence. EC perfectionism accounted for unique variance in current depressive and anxious symptoms over and above the five‐factor domain scores. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluative Concerns and Personal Standards Perfectionism: Self-esteem as a Mediator and Moderator of Relations with Personal and Academic Needs and Estimated GPA

We examined the mediational role of self-esteem in the relation between evaluative concerns (EC) and personal standards (PS) perfectionism, and measures of personal concerns, academic concerns, and estimated grade point average (EGPA) in 386 university students. Self-esteem partially mediated the relation between EC perfectionism and students’ personal and academic concerns. EC perfectionism was a weak predictor of EGPA. PS perfectionism was not related to academic concerns. Although PS was associated with personal concerns both directly and indirectly through low levels of self-esteem in women only, these findings did not hold when controlling for EC perfectionism. PS perfectionism had a direct positive relation with EGPA. Neither PS nor EC perfectionism interacted with self-esteem to predict unique variance in personal or academic concerns or EGPA. The results are consistent with our view that a perfectionism dimension that is primarily maladaptive can be distinguished from a dimension that can be adaptive. The implications for research and treatment are considered.

Personal standards and evaluative concerns dimensions of "clinical" perfectionism: a reply to Shafran et al. (2002, 2003) and Hewitt et al. (2003)

Shafran, Cooper, and Fairburn (2002, 2003) provided a cognitive-behavioral analysis of "clinical" perfectionism, a construct they considered to involve both the determined pursuit of self-imposed standards and extremely vulnerable self-evaluation. They argued against a multidimensional perspective to studying perfectionism. We respond to Shafran et al. (2002, 2003) and Hewitt, Flett, Besser, Sherry, and McGee's (2003) reply to Shafran et al. (2002) by considering the theoretical, empirical, and clinical implications of findings identifying two higher-order dimensions of perfectionism reflecting personal standards (PS) and self-critical evaluative concerns. Analyses of data from two diverse study groups, a college student sample (N = 527) and a clinical sample of patients with binge eating disorder (N = 236), revealed that self-criticism accounts for the relation between perfectionism measures and depressive, anxious, and eating disorder symptoms. We conclude that possessing high PS is not by itself maladaptive. Rather, self-critical evaluative tendencies are more relevant than PS to the critical processes Shafran et al. (2002) suggested contribute to the maintenance of clinical perfectionism.     

Profiles of perfectionism,body-related concerns,and indicators of psychological health in vocational dance students: An investigation of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism

ObjectivesThe study examined 1) profiles of multidimensional perfectionism; and 2) inter-relationships between these profiles and indices of body-related concerns and psychological health in the case of vocational dance students.DesignA cross-sectional design was employed.MethodsOne hundred and ninety-four vocational dance students (females = 169, males = 25; M age = 16.73, SD = 1.45) completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Frost-MPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990), the Brief Measure of Positive and Negative Affect (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988), the Social Physique Anxiety (SPA) Scale (Martin, Rejeski, Leary, McAuley, & Bane, 1997), an assessment of physical symptoms (Emmons, 1992), and the emotional and physical exhaustion subscale from the Athlete Burnout Measure (Raedeke & Smith, 2001).ResultsUsing a two-stage cluster analysis procedure, the dancers were grouped according to their scores on three Frost-MPS subscales (personal standards, concern over mistakes, and doubts about action). Four different profiles emerged: (1) dancers with pure personal standards perfectionism; (2) dancers with non perfectionism; (3) dancers with pure evaluative concerns perfectionism; and (4) dancers with a mixed profile of perfectionism. The results suggested that these different profiles of perfectionism distinguished according to body-related concerns and indicators of psychological health.ConclusionsIn support of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010), dancers with adaptive achievement tendencies demonstrated greater psychological adjustment compared to other three subtypes, whereas dancers with relatively greater concerns over mistakes and high doubts about actions, regardless of their personal standards, reported greater psychological distress.     

Perfectionism and athlete engagement: A multi-sample test of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism

Few studies have examined how perfectionism relates to athlete engagement. In addition, the studies that do exist have focused on the main effects of dimensions of perfectionism as opposed to their interactive effects. The first purpose of the study was therefore to examine the interactive effects of dimensions of perfectionism in predicting athlete engagement and, in doing so, test the hypotheses of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism. The second purpose of the study was to examine whether support for the 2 × 2 model depended on the instrument used to measure perfectionism. Three samples of junior and adult athletes from various sports (total N = 730) completed measures of perfectionism indicative of personal standards perfectionism (PSP) and evaluative concerns perfectionism (ECP) (HF-Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, Cox, Enns, & Clara, 2002; Sport-Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-2, Gotwals & Dunn, 2009; Multidimensional Inventory of Perfectionism for Sport, Stoeber et al. 2007), as well as a measure of athlete engagement (Athlete Engagement Questionnaire, Lonsdale, Hodge & Jackson, 2007). Moderated regression analyses provided support for the hypotheses of the 2 × 2 model for some facets of engagement but not others. Generally, pure PSP (high PSP/low ECP) was associated with the highest levels of athlete engagement and pure ECP (low PSP/high ECP) was associated with the lowest levels of athlete engagement. Support for the 2 × 2 model also differed depending on the instrument used to measure perfectionism. Overall, the findings suggest that the 2 × 2 model may explain differences between athletes in levels of engagement. However, these differences will depend on which indicators of PSP and ECP are examined.     

Perfectionism and emotion regulation in coaches: A test of the 2 × 2 model of dispositional perfectionism

The manner in which coaches regulate their emotions has implications for their performance and well-being. Drawing on research that has found perfectionism to predict emotion regulation in other settings, this study adopted the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism to examine whether subtypes of perfectionism among coaches were associated with variation in the use of emotion regulation strategies. Coaches (N = 238, M age = 23.92, SD = 10.32) from various sports completed measures of perfectionism (personal standards and evaluative concerns) and emotion regulation strategies (expressive suppression, cognitive reappraisal, and control of anger directed inwards and outwards). Moderated hierarchical regression provided mixed support for the 2 × 2 model. As expected, pure personal standards perfectionism (high standards/low concerns) was generally associated with the highest capacity for emotion regulation and pure evaluative concerns perfectionism (low standards/high concerns) with the lowest. Unexpectedly, mixed perfectionism (high standards/high concerns) was associated with the highest level of expressive suppression, suggesting that in some instances standards might exacerbate rather than attenuate concerns.     

Perfectionism and changes in athlete burnout over three months: Interactive effects of personal standards and evaluative concerns perfectionism

ObjectivesA recent longitudinal study with junior athletes (Madigan, Stoeber, & Passfield, 2015) found perfectionism to predict changes in athlete burnout: evaluative concerns perfectionism predicted increases in burnout over a 3-month period, whereas personal standards perfectionism predicted decreases. The present study sought to expand on these findings by using the framework of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010) to examine whether evaluative concerns perfectionism and personal standards perfectionism show interactions in predicting changes in athlete burnout.DesignTwo-wave longitudinal design.MethodThe present study examined self-reported evaluative concerns perfectionism, personal standards perfectionism, and athlete burnout in 111 athletes (mean age 24.8 years) over 3 months of active training.Results and conclusionWhen moderated regression analyses were employed, interactive effects of evaluative concerns perfectionism × personal standards perfectionism were found indicating that personal standards perfectionism buffered the effects of evaluative concerns perfectionism on total burnout and physical/emotional exhaustion. To interpret these effects, the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism provides a useful theoretical framework.     

Academic Hardiness as a Moderator between Evaluative Concerns Perfectionism and Academic Procrastination in Students

Abstract

Academic procrastination is a common phenomenon in students that can have a negative impact on effective learning, academic achievement, self-esteem, and quality of life. This study examined the associations among the two dimensions of perfectionism (personal standards perfectionism and evaluative concerns perfectionism), academic hardiness, and academic procrastination, as well as the moderating role of academic hardiness in the relationship between the two dimensions of perfectionism and academic procrastination. Participants of this study included 410 high school students in grades 9 to 12 from six schools in Tehran, Iran who completed the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised, the Academic Hardiness Scale, and the Procrastination Assessment Scale. The results indicated that personal standards perfectionism and academic hardiness had negative relationships with academic procrastination, whereas evaluative concerns perfectionism had a positive relationship with academic procrastination. Interaction-moderation analysis demonstrated that academic hardiness only played a buffering role in the relationship between evaluative concerns perfectionism and academic procrastination. The results of this study elucidate the experience of academic procrastination in students and highlight the role of academic hardiness and personal standards perfectionism. Implications for educators and psychologists are discussed.     

Eating disorder and obsessive–compulsive symptoms in a sample of bulimic women: Perfectionism as a mediating factor

The present study aimed to investigate whether perfectionism mediates the association between obsessive–compulsive (OC) and eating disorder (ED) symptoms. Analyses were conducted using data collected among a national sample of eating disordered women diagnosed with BN or a subclinical variant of BN (N = 204). Each participant completed a series of self-report inventories on perfectionism, as well as OC, ED, and depressive symptoms. Higher ED symptoms were significantly associated with greater levels of perfectionism (p < .01) and OC symptoms (p < .05). As hypothesized, perfectionism significantly mediated the relationship between ED and OC symptoms, controlling for depression. Findings indicate that perfectionism may be considered a shared etiological or phenomenological factor in ED and OC symptoms.     

Repetitive negative thinking mediates the association between perfectionism and psychological distress

Our objective was to analyze the relationships between Repetitive negative thinking (RNT), perfectionism and psychological distress. Specifically we wanted to test if RNT mediates the relationship between perfectionism and psychological distress. 788 college students completed self-report questionnaires to evaluate perfectionism trait dimensions [Evaluative concerns (EC) and Positive strivings (PS)], RNT dimensions [Repetitive thinking (RT) and Cognitive interference and unproductivity (CIU)], perceived stress, and perceived support. Psychological distress was measured with the Profile of Mood States subscales: Depression (D), Tension–anxiety (TA), Anger–hostility (AH), Fatigue–inertia (FI) and Vigor–anxiety (VA). After controlling for perceived stress and support, perfectionism dimensions and RNT (particularly CIU) remained a significant predictors of psychological distress. CIU was a partial mediator of the relationship between EC and D, TA, AH, FI and VA and a full mediator of the relationship of PS with D and FI. Whereas the effect of negative perfectionism on emotional disturbances was potentiated by RNT, PS was only associated to it when high levels of RNT were also present. Showing that Positive striving effects on psychological distress may be a function of specific mediators, these results contribute to a better understanding of the nature of positive perfectionism.     

Multidimensional Perfectionism and the Big Five Personality Traits: A Meta‐analysis

Multidimensional perfectionism includes the dimensions perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings. Many studies have investigated the nomological network of multidimensional perfectionism by relating perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings to the Big Five personality traits. Results from these studies were largely inconsistent. In the present study, we meta‐analytically integrated 672 effect sizes from 72 samples (N = 21 573) describing relations between multidimensional perfectionism and the Big Five personality traits. Perfectionistic concerns correlated positively with Neuroticism (r = 0.383) and negatively with Extraversion (r = ?0.198), Agreeableness (r = ?0.198), Conscientiousness (r = ?0.111), and Openness (r = ?0.087). Perfectionistic strivings correlated positively with Conscientiousness (r = 0.368), Openness (r = 0.121), Neuroticism (r = 0.090), and Extraversion (r = 0.067) and were unrelated to Agreeableness (r = 0.002). The measures of perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings moderated most of these relations. Meta‐analytic structural equation modelling allowed controlling each perfectionism dimension for the respective other. This partialling increased all correlations with the exception of the previously positive correlation between perfectionistic strivings and Neuroticism, which ceased to be significant. The findings support the distinction between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns and demonstrate how multidimensional perfectionism is situated in the context of broader personality traits. © 2019 European Association of Personality Psychology     

A test of the 2 × 2 Model of Perfectionistic Pressure in youth sport

Perfectionistic pressure from coaches and parents is likely to contribute to the development of perfectionism in youth athletes. However, if and how perfectionistic pressure from coaches and parents interact to predict the development of perfectionism is unknown. With this in mind, the present study tested a new model – the 2 × 2 Model of Perfectionistic Pressure – that focuses on the different combinations of perfectionistic pressure youth athletes can experience. Four within-person combinations of perfectionistic pressure are identified and compared: Pure coach pressure (high coach pressure/low parental pressure), pure parental pressure (low coach pressure/high parental pressure), mixed pressure (high coach pressure/high parental pressure), and low pressure (low coach pressure/low parental pressure). To test the model, a sample of 210 youth athletes (M age = 14.68 years) completed measures of perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, coach pressure to be perfect, and parental pressure to be perfect. Moderated hierarchical regression and simple slopes analyses revealed that mixed pressure was related to the highest levels of both perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. The findings provide initial evidence for the new model and suggests it will be useful in studying the development of perfectionism and other outcomes in sport.     

Self-critical perfectionism and depressive symptoms: Low self-esteem and experiential avoidance as mediators

This study of community adults (N = 210) aimed to gain a better understanding of the links among self-critical (SC) perfectionism, self-esteem, experiential avoidance, and depressive symptoms. Participants completed self-report questionnaires assessing perfectionism dimensions, self-esteem, experiential avoidance, and depressive symptoms. Confirmatory factor analysis supported SC perfectionism, self-esteem, experiential avoidance, and depressive symptoms as distinct, but related, constructs. Structural equation modeling (SEM) demonstrated that the relation between SC perfectionism and depressive symptoms was mediated by lower self-esteem. SEM also showed that experiential avoidance independently mediated the relation between SC perfectionism and depressive symptoms, controlling for the effects of lower self-esteem. These results distinguish SC perfectionism from lower self-esteem by demonstrating that individuals with higher SC perfectionism have a unique propensity toward experiential avoidance, which, in turn, incrementally explains why they experience higher levels of depressive symptoms.     

Perfectionism and doping willingness in athletes: The mediating role of moral disengagement

Although trait perfectionism has been related to doping attitudes in athletes, research investigating variables that could account for relationships between perfectionism and doping outcomes has received scant attention. Consequently, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether perfectionism was related to doping willingness directly, and indirectly via moral disengagement. We recruited a sample of 204 student athletes (M age = 19.12 years, SD = 1.17, n = 81 females - 39.70%) who completed measures of perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, doping moral disengagement, and doping willingness. Multiple regression analyses revealed a significant positive relationship between perfectionistic concerns and doping willingness (β = .13, p < .05) and a nonsignificant relationship between perfectionistic strivings and doping willingness (β = −.01, p > .05). Moreover, bias-corrected bootstrapped indirect effects revealed that doping moral disengagement mediated the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and doping willingness (ab = .12; 95% CI = 0.02 to 0.21). The findings suggest that the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and doping extends beyond attitudes – to doping willingness – and the propensity to morally disengage explains why this is the case.     

Subtypes of Adaptive and Maladaptive Perfectionism in Anorexia Nervosa: Associations with Eating Disorder and Affective Symptoms

Perfectionism is hypothesized to contribute to the etiology of anorexia nervosa (AN). However, there is little research regarding whether individuals with AN can be classified according to maladaptive (e.g., evaluative concerns) and adaptive (e.g., high personal standards) facets of perfectionism that predict distinct outcomes and might warrant different intervention approaches. In this study, a latent profile analysis was conducted using data from adults with AN (n?=?118). Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Frost et al. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14(5), 449–46, 1990) subscales were used to identify subgroups differing according to endorsed perfectionism features (e.g., adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism). Generalized linear models were used to compare subgroups on eating disorder and affective symptoms measured through questionnaire and ecological momentary assessment. Four subgroups were identified: (a) Low Perfectionism; (b) High Adaptive and Maladaptive Perfectionism; (c) Moderate Maladaptive Perfectionism; and (d) High Maladaptive Perfectionism. Subgroups differed on overall eating disorder symptoms (p?<?.001), purging (p?=?.005), restrictive eating (p?<?.001), and body checking (p?<?.001) frequency, depressive (p?<?.001) and anxiety (p?<?.001) symptoms, and negative (p?=?.001) and positive (p?<?.001) affect. The Low Perfectionism group displayed the most adaptive scores and the Moderate and High Maladaptive Perfectionism groups demonstrated the most elevated clinical symptoms. The High Adaptive and Maladaptive Perfectionism group demonstrated low affective disturbances, but elevated eating disorder symptoms. Results support the clinical significance of subtyping according to perfectionism dimensions in AN. Research is needed to determine if perfectionism subtyping can enhance individualized treatment targeting in AN.     

Perfectionism,burnout and engagement in youth sport: The mediating role of basic psychological needs

Recent research indicates perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings share divergent associations with athlete burnout and athlete engagement. Guided by self-determination theory, the present study examined whether these associations were explained by basic psychological needs. Youth athletes (n = 222, M age = 16.01, SD = 2.68) completed measures of multidimensional perfectionism, athlete burnout, athlete engagement, basic psychological need satisfaction and thwarting. Structural equation modelling revealed that basic psychological need satisfaction and thwarting mediated the perfectionism–engagement and perfectionism–burnout relationships. Perfectionistic concerns shared a negative relationship (via need satisfaction) with athlete engagement and a positive relationship (via need satisfaction and thwarting) with athlete burnout. In contrast, perfectionistic strivings shared a positive relationship (via need satisfaction) with athlete engagement and a negative relationship (via need satisfaction and thwarting) with athlete burnout. The findings highlight the role of basic psychological needs in explaining the differential associations that perfectionistic concerns and strivings share with athlete burnout and engagement.     

Perfectionism and achievement goals revisited: The 3 × 2 achievement goal framework

ObjectivesPerfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC) have shown different profiles with the 2 × 2 achievement goals in sport. Whether PS and PC also show comparable profiles with the achievement goals of the expanded 3 × 2 framework, however, is unclear.DesignCross-sectional.MethodWe examined self-reported perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and the 3 × 2 achievement goals in 136 junior athletes (mean age 17.0 years).ResultsThe results of structural equation modeling showed that PS were positively associated with task-, self-, and other-approach goals and negatively with task- and self-avoidance goals. In contrast, PC were positively associated with task-, self-, and other-avoidance goals and negatively with task- and self-approach goals.ConclusionsThe findings suggest that PS and PC show different profiles also with the 3 × 2 achievement goals which may help explain why the two perfectionism dimensions show differential relations with achievement-related outcomes in sport.     

How Children’s Cognitive and Affective Responses to a Novel Task Relate to the Dimensions of Perfectionism

The current study examined how the Maladaptive Evaluative Concerns (MEC) versus Positive Achievement Striving (PAS) dimensions of perfectionism relate to anxiety, goal-setting, and cognitive appraisal in third-grade to sixth-grade students who completed an object-naming task under three goal-demand conditions: self-set goals, and low and high experimenter goals. The results indicated that children high on a measure of socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP; a measure of MEC) experienced more anxiety across all conditions than children low in SPP. Children scoring high on SPP also rated performing well on the task as more important and were more likely to say they should have performed better than their low SPP counterparts, despite no significant differences in performance or standard-setting. The PAS component of perfectionism was unrelated to children??s responses. These results are consistent with Beck??s cognitive theory and support the utility of the maladaptive evaluative concerns dimension of perfectionism in predicting children??s cognitive and affective responses to new tasks.     

Perfectionistic strivings and concerns are differentially associated with self-rated health beyond negative affect

A growing literature on how perfectionism relates to self-reported physical health has rarely considered the role of negative affect or contextual factors. We addressed this by examining how Perfectionistic Concerns (PC) and Perfectionistic Strivings (PS) were associated with self-rated health across thirteen samples (total N = 4991) before and after controlling for negative affect, and meta-analyzed the effects. PC was associated with poor self-rated health, whereas PS was associated with good self-rated health. The associations were attenuated after adjusting for negative affect, but remained on average significant. The effects for PC were moderated by sample type, perfectionism measure, and sex. Findings suggest that the associations of perfectionism with subjective health are not solely due to biases associated with negative affect.