Understanding the Role of Gender and Ethnic Oppression when Treating Mexican American Women for Eating Disorders

Gender, ethnicity, and weight issues are often the basis for internalized oppression. Mexican American women with eating disorders are subject to such internalization, complicated by cultural and family factors. Mexican American women (n = 136) were assessed. The resulting culturally discrepant gender identity theory describes the complicated set of relationships between weight, cultural weightism, gender identity, assimilation to U.S. culture, family factors, and eating disorder symptoms. Therapists treating eating disorders should consider ethnic and gender identity in addressing the conflicts between family, culture, and gender expectations; and demonstrate sensitivity to the complex inter-generational relationships in Mexican American families.     

Subjective Well-Being in Mexican and Mexican American Women: The Role of Acculturation,Ethnic Identity,Gender Roles,and Perceived Social Support

Latinas experience multiple oppressions and poorer mental health due to their often triple minority status as poor, female, women of color. The present study examined whether identifying with both Mexican culture and the dominant culture (bicultural), having high ethnic identity, identifying with both feminine and masculine behavior (androgynous gender role), and perceiving greater family social support predicted life satisfaction and positive affect in low socioeconomic status, Mexican and Mexican American women (n = 194). Results indicated that greater ethnic identity and greater perceived family social support significantly predicted Mexican and Mexican American women’s life satisfaction. Greater ethnic identity, greater feminine gender identity, greater androgynous gender identity, and greater perceived family social support were significant predictors of positive affect. Furthermore, as expected, social support from family was the most significant predictor for both life satisfaction and positive affect. Implications of the results and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Body dissatisfaction, ethnic identity, and disordered eating among African American women

Initial research suggested that only European American women developed eating disorders (Garner, 1993), yet recent studies have shown that African American women do experience them (e.g., Lester & Petrie, 1998b; Mulholland & Mintz, 2001) and also may be negatively affected by similar sociocultural variables. In this study, we examined a sociocultural model of eating disorders for African American women but included the influences of ethnic identity (e.g., Hall, 1995; Helms, 1990). Participants (N = 322) were drawn from 5 different universities. They completed measures representing ethnic identity, societal pressures regarding thinness, internalization of societal beauty ideals, body image concerns, and disordered eating. Structural equation modeling revealed that ethnic identity was inversely, and societal pressures regarding thinness directly, related to internalization of societal beauty ideals. Societal pressures regarding thinness was also related to greater body image concerns. Both internalization of societal beauty ideals and body image concerns were positively associated with disordered eating (R2 = .79). Overall, the final model fit the data well, supporting its generalizability and the importance of ethnic identity in determining risk.     

Ethnic identity,thin-ideal internalization,and eating pathology in ethnically diverse college women

Although much research suggests that ethnic identity is positively correlated with psychological health for ethnic minority women, research examining ethnic identity's relationships to thin-ideal internalization, weight concerns, and eating concerns is sparse. Consequently, this study examined these relationships in European American, African American, Latina, and Asian American college women (N = 816). As expected, univariate analyses of variance indicated that European American women scored lowest on ethnic identity and highest on eating and weight concerns, whereas African American women scored lowest on thin-ideal internalization. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that ethnic identity was negatively associated with eating and weight concerns, while body mass index and thin-ideal internalization were positively associated. Ethnic identity moderated the relationship between thin-ideal internalization and eating concerns such that the relationship was stronger for participants with lower ethnic identity. These results suggest ethnic identity may be a direct or interactive protective factor against eating concerns in ethnically diverse college women.     

Differences in Universal‐Diverse Orientation by Race‐Ethnicity and Gender

This article addresses the roles of race‐ethnicity and gender in university student orientation toward diversity. Differences in orientation toward diversity were found between men and women as well as among racial‐ethnic groups (Asian/Asian American, African American, Latino, Anglo‐American). Anglo‐American students' scores were significantly lower than those of people of color, but no differences were found among groups of color. Men's scores were significantly lower than women's scores. Discussion addresses implications for higher education diversity programming.     

The fertility related behavior of Mexican American adolescents

Data from a clinic sample of pregnant adolescents are analyzed for differences in fertility related variables between Mexican American and non Mexican. The independent variables are birthplace, ethnicity, and exposure to United States culture of Mexican and non Mexican adolescents. The dependent variables are talking about sex, pregnancy, birth control, hearing about birth control, and use of birth control. The data support the hypothesis that in the process of acculturation the fertility related behavior of immigrant Mexican adolescent females is affected by the indigenous United States Mexican culture rather than by United States Anglo culture. Implications for delivery of services are discussed. The delivery of fertility related services should take into account the cultural preferences of Mexican women, and should not involve coercion from legal or medical authorities. While liberation of Mexican American women, and accompanying changes in childbearing patterns may be desirable, these efforts should originate within the Mexican American community. Data is presented in tables on selected sample and subsample characteristics and compares fertility behaviors across ethnic groups, including Anglo, Black, US non-Mexican, and US Mexican.     

Implicit bicultural identity among Mexican American and Asian American college students

Contemporary research on ethnic identity, acculturation, and cultural orientation suggests that, at least under some circumstances, individuals can successfully internalize or identify with more than one culture. Previous research on multicultural identity has relied almost exclusively on self-report measures. Using the Implicit Association Test (IAT), the present research examined to what extent Mexican American and Asian American college students identified with American culture and with their culture of origin. Results indicated that Mexican American and Asian American participants strongly and equally identified with both cultures. The present research provides firm evidence for a bicultural identity through assessments of thoughts that cannot be consciously controlled. Patterns of bicultural identification obtained on implicit measures were not the product of deliberate responses to normative demands or conscious attempts to convey a particular self-image.     

ACCULTURATION, BODY IMAGE, SELF-ESTEEM, AND EATING-DISORDER SYMPTOMATOLOGY IN ADOLESCENT MEXICAN AMERICAN WOMEN

In this article the relationship among acculturation, body image, self-esteem, and eating disorder symptomatology in 120 Mexican American adolescent women was investigated. Surprisingly, acculturation levels were not related to anorexic or bulimic symptomatology, self-esteem, body dissatisfaction or thinness of ideal and attractive figures. Lower levels of self-esteem predicted higher levels of anorexic and bulimic symptomatology. Body mass was positively related to bulimic scores. In contrast to Lester and Petrie (1995), body dissatisfaction was significantly related to eating-disorder symptomatology. The high levels of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors found in this study suggest that rather than exclusively being an Anglo, middle-to upper-class phenomenon, eating-disordered behavior also exists within lower socioeconomic status Mexican American adolescent women.     

Status projections and ethnicity: A comparison of Mexican American,Negro, and Anglo youth

The general purpose of this paper was to determine to what extent ethnic group differences exist in adolescents' projected frames of status reference. Utilizing data obtained from Negro, Mexican American, and Anglo youth residing in nonmetropolitan areas of Texas, ethnic comparisons were made by sex on several dimensions of occupational and educational status projections: levels of aspiration and expectation, anticipatory goal deflection, intensity of aspiration, and certainty of expectation. The findings indicated that the three ethnic groups were generally similar, except in reference to status expectations and intensity of aspiration: Negro youth maintained higher level expectations and Mexican American youth maintained stronger intensity of aspiration. Several other consistent but less substantial patterns of ethnic variability were noted: Mexican American youth felt least certain of attaining their expectations, Negro youth held higher educational goals, and Anglo youth experienced the least anticipatory deflection. Implications were drawn for theory and future research.     

Relations Among Ethnicity, Gender, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Intention to Pursue a Career in Information Technology

Using data from 159 African Americans and 98 Anglo Americans, we examined relations among ethnicity, gender, information technology (IT) self-efficacy, occupational stereotypes, attitudes toward IT, and IT career intentions. Results revealed that IT self-efficacy and occupational stereotypes were related to attitudes toward IT jobs, and these attitudes were positively related to career intentions. In addition, there were ethnic and gender differences in IT self-efficacy and occupational stereotypes. In particular, African American men reported higher levels of IT self-efficacy, whereas Anglo American women reported lower levels of IT self-efficacy than did members of all other groups. Furthermore, Anglo Americans had more negative stereotypes of IT professionals than did African Americans. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

The Impact of Multiple Dimensions of Ethnic Identity on Discrimination and Adolescents' Self-Estees

The rejection-identification model is investigated with multiple dimensions of ethnic identity in a sample of Mexican American youth. It is hypothesized that more perceived discrimination will be associated with higher ethnic identity in general, but that the multiple dimensions of ethnic identity will be associated differentially with discrimination. Higher perceived discrimination will be associated with more ethnic exploration and less ethnic affirmation. Self-report questionnaires were completed by middle school students of Mexican descent ( N= 881). Based on structural equation modeling, the data were found to fit the rejection-identification model ( p < .05). Higher discrimination was associated with lower ethnic affirmation ( p < .05) and lower ethnic exploration ( p < .05). Post hoc analyses indicated a significant interaction between discrimination and ethnic affirmation ( p < .01) such that youth with high ethnic affirmation who experienced high discrimination still reported high self-esteem. The findings are discussed in the context of understanding methods of coping with prejudice and discrimination that will enhance the mental well-being of minority youth.     

The relation between ethnic group attachment and prosocial tendencies: The mediating role of cultural values

Studies suggest that Mexican–American youths who feel attached to their ethnic group engage in more prosocial behaviors. However, the psychological mechanisms that account for this association are not clear. Drawing on social identity and self‐categorization theories, we examined whether the association between ethnic group attachment and tendencies to engage in six distinct types of prosocial behaviors was mediated by familism and Mainstream American values among Mexican American youths. Ethnic group attachment, familism, Mainstream American values, and prosocial tendencies were assessed among 207 Mexican–American early adolescents using an interview format. Latent variable path models showed that ethnic group attachment was associated with greater tendencies to engage in compliant, emotional, dire, and anonymous helping, and that each of these associations was at least partially mediated by greater familism values. Mainstream American values were related to greater tendencies to engage in public prosocial behavior and less altruistic behavior, but did not mediate the associations between ethnic group attachment and prosocial tendencies. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are addressed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Predictors of quality of life of Portuguese Americans: identity,acculturation, and religiosity

ABSTRACT

Utilising the Multicultural Assessment-Intervention Process (MAIP) framework, the present study examined the effects of acculturation, ethnic identity, and religiosity on Portuguese Americans’ perceptions of their quality of life. Several culturally-sensitive variables were used to predict quality of life attitudes among a convenience sample of 305 Portuguese American adults. A structural model with quality of life as the outcome variable, Portuguese identity as the predictor, and Anglo orientation and religious faith as separate mediators was tested and a simple mediation structure involving religious faith was confirmed. While Portuguese identity predicts quality of life directly, when religious faith was added into the model as a mediator, much of the predictive value of Portuguese identity on quality of life was funnelled through religious faith. Implications for future Portuguese American research were discussed.     

The Impact of Self-Components on Attitudes Toward Sex Among African American Preadolescent Girls: The Moderating Role of Menarche

The purpose of this study was to identify the protective factors that help to prevent attitudes that are tolerant of risky sexual behavior among inner-city, African American, preadolescent girls. It was hypothesized that aspects of the self would significantly predict attitudes toward sexual behavior among this population. It was also expected that the predictive power of the self-components (i.e., ethnic identity, self-concept, and masculine and feminine gender role orientation) would be increased in African American girls following menarche. Two hundred and five African American, preadolescent girls from a northeastern, inner-city community participated in this study. The age for this sample ranged from 10 to 13. Findings of this study lend partial support to the hypotheses. Examination of the predictive relationship between the self-components and attitudes toward sex indicated that self-concept and the masculine and feminine gender role characteristics were significant predictors of attitudes toward sex. In addition, the impact of ethnic identity on functioning was found to be most significant for girls who had experienced menarche.     

The Prevalence of Spirituality, Optimism, Depression, and Fatalism in a Bi-ethnic Stroke Population

To provide insight into the reduced post-stroke all-cause mortality among Mexican Americans, we explored ethnic differences in the pre-stroke prevalence of (1) spirituality, (2) optimism, (3) depression, and (4) fatalism in a Mexican American and non-Hispanic white stroke population. The Brain Attack Surveillance in Corpus Christi (BASIC) project is a population-based stroke surveillance study in Nueces County, Texas. Seven hundred ten stroke patients were queried. For fatalism, optimism, and depression scales, unadjusted ethnic comparisons were made using linear regression models. Regression models were also used to explore how age and gender modify the ethnic associations after adjustment for education. For the categorical spirituality variables, ethnic comparisons were made using Fisher's exact tests. Mexican Americans reported significantly more spirituality than non-Hispanic whites. Among women, age modified the ethnic associations with pre-stroke depression and fatalism but not optimism. Mexican American women had more optimism than non-Hispanic white women. With age, Mexican American women had less depression and fatalism, while non-Hispanic white women had more fatalism and similar depression. Among men, after adjustment for education and age, there was no ethnic association with fatalism, depression, and optimism. Spirituality requires further study as a potential mediator of increased survival following stroke among Mexican Americans. Among women, evaluation of the role of optimism, depression, and fatalism as they relate to ethnic differences in post-stroke mortality should be explored.     

Cultural orientation in Southeast Asian American young adults

The study assessed cultural orientation in a group of 188 Southeast Asian American American-born and early-arriving (by age 5) young adults using the General Ethnicity Questionnaire--Southeast Asian and American versions. The sample included 98 Vietnamese, 45 Cambodian, and 45 Hmong college students in California. As hypothesized and in support of the bidimensional model, overall orientation to ethnic and American cultures were independent of each other, and predicted, respectively, by ethnic and American cultural domains. The three ethnic groups did not vary on level of cultural orientation, but their endorsement of ethnic and American cultures differed across domains. Specifically, they enjoyed American mass media and cultural activities more than ethnic media and activities, and were more fluent in English than their ethnic language. However, they expressed greater ethnic pride and a stronger overall Southeast Asian orientation than American pride and orientation.     

Mexican American Adolescents’ Cultural Orientation, Externalizing Behavior and Academic Engagement: The Role of Traditional Cultural Values

This study of 598 7th grade students of Mexican origin examined the role of traditional cultural values as a mediator of the effects of immigrant status, Mexican cultural orientation and Anglo cultural orientation on adolescent externalizing behavior and academic engagement. Immigrant status of adolescents and their maternal caregivers uniquely predicted increased Mexican cultural orientation and decreased Anglo cultural orientation, and both Mexican and Anglo cultural orientation related positively to adolescents’ endorsement of traditional cultural values. Endorsement of traditional cultural values related, in turn, to decreased externalizing behaviors and increased academic engagement and these findings were replicated across adolescent and teacher report of these two outcomes. Tests of mediation provided further evidence to support these pathways. Findings support the central importance of traditional cultural values as a protective resource that explains why immigrant youth exhibit fewer externalizing problems and increased academic engagement when compared to their second and third generation peers.     

Internalization of U.S. female beauty standards as a mediator of the relationship between Mexican American women's acculturation and body dissatisfaction

The relationships among acculturation, internalization of U.S. sociocultural standards of female beauty, and body dissatisfaction were examined in a sample of 211 Mexican American college women. Structural equation modeling was used to identify the paths among these three factors. Results demonstrated that there are two distinct types of body dissatisfaction: global evaluations and composite site-specific evaluations. The relationships between acculturation toward dominant U.S. culture and both types of body dissatisfaction were found to be fully mediated by internalization of U.S. standards of female beauty. There were no relationships between Mexican orientation and any of the study variables. The results from this study imply that it is important for therapists working with Mexican American female clients to assess the client's level of acculturation, examine the cultural (U.S. and Mexican) messages the client receives, and explore how these messages impact her body image.     

MMPI Supplemental Scale Performance of Mexican Americans and Level of Acculturation

Mexican American and Anglo American's performance on the Wiggins Content Scales, Harris-Lingoes subscales, and Serkownek subscales was assessed in a college student population, Level of acculturation (Mexican vs. Anglo orientation), age, and social class were statistically controlled, The results showed statistically significant differences between means of Anglo and Mexican Americans on most of the supplemental scales assessed. These differences were more numerous before scale validity criteria were applied. The number of statistically significant differences were further reduced when level of acculturation and age were statistically controlled, The results showed that level of acculturation is a highly important variable which moderates interpretation of the MMPI scale elevations we measured. Acculturation far outweighted the influence of the well established MMPI moderator variables of age and social class.     

MMPI supplemental scale performance of Mexican Americans and level of acculturation

Mexican American and Anglo American's performance on the Wiggins Content Scales, Harris-Lingoes subscales, and Serkownek subscales was assessed in a college student population. Level of acculturation (Mexican vs. Anglo orientation), age, and social class were statistically controlled. The results showed statistically significant differences between means of Anglo and Mexican Americans on most of the supplemental scales assessed. These differences were more numerous before scale validity criteria were applied. The number of statistically significant differences were further reduced when level of acculturation and age were statistically controlled. The results showed that level of acculturation is a highly important variable which moderates interpretation of the MMPI scale elevations we measured. Acculturation far outweighed the influence of the well established MMPI moderator variables of age and social class.