Evaluating the independence of sex and expression in judgments of faces

Face recognition models suggest independent processing for functionally different types of information, such as identity, expression, sex, and facial speech. Interference between sex and expression information was tested using both a rating study and Garner's selective attention paradigm using speeded sex and expression decisions. When participants were asked to assess the masculinity of male and female angry and surprised faces, they found surprised faces to be more feminine than angry ones (Experiment 1). However, in a speeded-classification situation in the laboratory in which the sex decision was either "easy" relative to the expression decision (Experiment 2) or of more equivalent difficulty (Experiment 3), it was possible for participants to attend selectively to either dimension without interference from the other. Qualified support is offered for independent processing routes.     

The role of controlled attention on recall in major depression

Information processing biases are hallmark features of major depressive disorder (MDD). Depressed individuals display biased memory and attention for negative material. Given that memory is highly dependent on attention for initial encoding, understanding the interplay of these processes may provide important insight into mechanisms that produce memory biases in depression. In particular, attentional control—the ability to selectively attend to task-relevant information by both inhibiting the processing of irrelevant information and disengaging attention from irrelevant material—may be one area of impairment in MDD. In the current study, clinically depressed (MDD: n = 15) and never depressed (non-MDD: n = 22) participants' line of visual gaze was assessed while participants viewed positive and negative word pairs. For each word pair, participants were instructed to attend to one word (target) and ignore one word (distracter). Free recall of study stimuli was then assessed. Depressed individuals displayed greater recall of negatively valenced target words following the task. Although there were no group differences in attentional control in the context of negative words, attention to negative targets mediated the relationship between depression status and recall of negative words. Results suggest a stronger link between attention and memory for negative material in MDD.     

Selective attention in vision: recognition memory for superimposed line drawings

These experiments show that observers can selectively attend to one of two stationary superimposed pictures. If superimposed line drawings are presented to observers who are told to attend to one line drawing in the pair and to ignore the other line drawing in the pair, then a subsequent recognition test in which the pictures are presently singly, the attended picture in each pair is recognized much more frequently than the unattended picture in each pair. This selective recognition occurs both with large (11 degrees-22 degrees) displays in which observers are free to make eye movements during a 3-sec exposure and with small (1 degree) displays in which observers are instructed to fixate steadily on a point during a 1-sec exposure. The results of the steady fixation experiments show that in the absence of eye movements, attention to one of two superimposed stimuli can cause an observer to remember the attended image and not to remember the other, clearly visible, unattended image in a superimposed pair.     

Aptitude-related differences in auditory information processing: effects of selective attention and tone duration

College students selected for high or low aptitude performed an auditory backward recognition masking task in which tones differed in pitch (770 or 870 Hz) and duration (10, 13 or 20 msec). Ss were required to attend selectively to the pitch but not to the duration of the targets. As predicted, higher aptitude was associated with lower recognition thresholds at all tone durations. Although increased attentional demands impaired recognition thresholds, this had no apparent differential effect on aptitude-related differences in auditory information processing.     

Large visuospatial sex difference in line judgment: possible role of attentional factors

This article describes a large sex difference on a new, group-administered visuospatial task, the Judgment of Line Angle and Position (JLAP) test, and investigates the role of attentional factors in the difference. On the JLAP, adapted from a neuropsychological task (Benton et al., 1983), participants evaluate spatial attributes of lines. Study 1: College males (N = 48) outperformed females (N = 80), resulting in a large effect for sex (d = 0.85). Errors were more common on oblique (vs horizontal or vertical) lines, especially for females. Study 2: Task attributes were manipulated (N = 33 males and 36 females) to study the role of attentional factors. Findings suggest that males are more likely than females to normally attend to and be aided by geometrical reference cues.     

Blinded by fear? Prior exposure to fearful faces enhances attentional processing of task-irrelevant stimuli

Threatening information has been shown to both capture attention and enhance sensory processing. Recent evidence has also suggested that exposure to fearful stimuli may enhance perceptual processing of subsequently presented information, as well as increase attentional capacity. However, these results are inconsistent with other findings that fearful stimuli reduce task-irrelevant distraction and improve selective attention. Here, we investigated the effect of prior exposure to fearful faces on performance in the Eriksen flanker task. Across experiments, fearful cues led to increased task-irrelevant distraction for items positioned across visual space, in contrast to other emotional expressions and inverted face items, and under conditions of attentional load. Findings support the view that fearful images enhance attentional capacity, allowing one to attend to as much visual information as possible when danger is implied. Conflicting findings on the effect of fear and selective attention are discussed.     

Hemispheric laterality measured in Rembrandt's portraits using pupil diameter and aesthetic verbal judgements

Eckhard Hess claimed that pupils dilate to pleasant images and constrict to unpleasant images. However, his work was confounded since his image's luminances and contrasts across conditions were inconsistent. We overcome this limitation and suggest a new, promising methodology for research in this area. We presented rightward or leftward facing male and female portraits by Rembrandt to observers in either their original or mirror-reversed position. Since emotional content may be expressed differently on each side of the face, we used Rembrandt's portraits since most of his males had their right-cheek exposed and females had their left-cheek exposed. This raises questions regarding the emotional and cognitive significance of such biased positioning. Simultaneously, we measured observers pupil size while asking observers to report how (dis)pleasing they found each image. We found that in viewing male portraits pupil diameter was a function of arousal. That is, larger pupil diameter occurred for images rated both low and high in pleasantness. We discuss these findings in regard to the perceived dominance of males and how emotional expressions may be driven by hemispheric laterality.     

Ambiguity of acceptance,social desirability,and dating choice

Male subjects differing in social desirability (likableness, physical attractiveness) chose a date from an array of females of three levels of physical attractiveness. Choices were made under two conditions: one where acceptance was assured regardless of whom subject chose; the other where acceptance was left ambiguous. The findings were as follows: (a) subjects selected a more physically attractive female when assured of acceptance than when acceptance was left ambiguous; (b) subjects estimated that highly physically attractive females were less likely to accept them as a date than were either moderately physically attractive or physically unattractive females; (c) subjects' self-ratings of their likableness were not related to the physical attractiveness of their choices under either choice condition nor to their estimates of their chances that the females would accept them as a date; and (d) subjects' self-evaluated physical attractiveness, although unrelated to the physical attractiveness of the subjects' choices, did relate to subjects' estimates of their chances of acceptance. Highly physically attractive subjects estimated their chances of acceptance as better than did subjects who considered themselves low in physical attractiveness. The implications of the findings for the “matching hypothesis” are discussed.     

Physically Attractive Social Information Sources Lead to Increased Selective Exposure to Information

The present research investigated the impact of a social information source's physical attractiveness on selective exposure to decision-relevant information. In two studies, support was found for the hypothesis that physically attractive information sources lead decision makers into being more selective in both searching for (Studies 1 and 2; selective exposure) and evaluating (Study 2; biased assimilation) decision-relevant information. In both studies, the effect was driven by differences in the selection and evaluation of decision-consistent information, that is, physically attractive information sources led to increases in the perceived quality of decision-consistent information as well as increased selective exposure to this information. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Is stimulus structure in the Mind's eye? An examination of dimensional structure in iconic memory

Three experiments examined integral and separable dimensions as attentional selective cues from iconic memory. Sperling's partial-report task was employed with physically separable and physically integral stimuli. Stimulus displays were varied in terms of the redundancy of the irrelevant non-cued dimensions—i.e. control, correlated, and orthogonal conditions within Garner's (1974a) framework—and selective readout performance was measured. The results demonstrate that, in initial processing, physically separable dimensions (e.g., circle size vs. angle of radial line) can be selectively attended to as independent dimensions, but physically integral dimensions (e.g., size vs. brightness and height vs. width) can only be represented as wholistic integral objects. Implications of these findings for current models of feature integration and perceptual development are discussed.     

Hemispheric laterality measured in Rembrandt's portraits using pupil diameter and aesthetic verbal judgements

Eckhard Hess claimed that pupils dilate to pleasant images and constrict to unpleasant images. However, his work was confounded since his image's luminances and contrasts across conditions were inconsistent. We overcome this limitation and suggest a new, promising methodology for research in this area. We presented rightward or leftward facing male and female portraits by Rembrandt to observers in either their original or mirror-reversed position. Since emotional content may be expressed differently on each side of the face, we used Rembrandt's portraits since most of his males had their right-cheek exposed and females had their left-cheek exposed. This raises questions regarding the emotional and cognitive significance of such biased positioning. Simultaneously, we measured observers pupil size while asking observers to report how (dis)pleasing they found each image. We found that in viewing male portraits pupil diameter was a function of arousal. That is, larger pupil diameter occurred for images rated both low and high in pleasantness. We discuss these findings in regard to the perceived dominance of males and how emotional expressions may be driven by hemispheric laterality.     

Dividing attention between auditory and visual perception

To what extent is simultaneous visual and auditory perception subject to capacity limitations and attentional control? Two experiments addressed this question by asking observers to recognize test tones and test letters under selective and divided attention. In Experiment 1, both stimuli occurred on each trial, but subjects were cued in advance to process just one or both of the stimuli. In Experiment 2, subjects processed one stimulus and then the other or processed both stimuli simultaneously. Processing time was controlled using a backward recognition masking task. A significant, but small, attention effect was found in both experiments. The present positive results weaken the interpretation that previous attentional effects were due to the particular duration judgment task that was employed. The answer to the question addressed by the experiments appears to be that the degree of capacity limitations and attentional control during visual and auditory perception is small but significant.     

Selective interference in rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) intragroup agonistic episodes by age-sex class

Adult male interference in agonistic episodes is strongly biased against adolescent and adult male participants, whereas adult female interference is biased in favor of kin and in support of younger animals against older animals. Although natal males also are biased in favor of their kin, their selective targeting of sexually mature males is independent of kinship. Adolescent males target adult males, but only in defense of kin. This selective interference against adolescent and adult males by adult males has the potential to profoundly modify male agonistic participation in intragroup encounters after puberty. Because female support is influenced primarily by kinship, females less consistently interfere against male agonistic participants. Adult males may therefore play an important role in the socialization of male agonistic expression.     

Females, but not males, show greater pupillary response to direct- than deviated-gaze faces

Under suitable conditions, pupillary dilation is a reliable index of processing activity. Pupil size was tracked in male and female observers following the presentation of face stimuli for an age-judgment task. The eyes on the faces were either directed towards the observer or deviated to the side. Pupil dilation accompanied processing of the faces, but female observers showed significantly more sustained pupil dilation when viewing direct- than deviated-gaze faces over the period 3 to 7 s after stimulus onset, regardless of stimulus sex. In contrast, male observers did not show a consistent pattern in response to either the gaze or sex of the face stimuli. These findings indicate a sex difference in the processing of gaze direction and suggest that females, but not males, apply increased effort to processing socially relevant (direct-gaze) than irrelevant (deviated-gaze) faces. They also demonstrate that pupillary measurement can potentially provide new insights into the processing of even visual input, provided reflexes are sufficiently controlled.     

Assessing the role of spatial engagement and disengagement of attention in anxiety-linked attentional bias: a critique of current paradigms and suggestions for future research directions

A considerable volume of research has demonstrated an anxiety-linked attentional bias characterized by selective processing of threat stimuli. The last decade has seen growing interest in identifying the precise attentional mechanisms which underlie such selective processing to advance both theoretical and etiological models of anxiety. This research has particularly focused on the roles of spatial engagement and disengagement of attention. The relative contribution of these attentional components to selective processing of threat in anxious individuals remains unclear however. Moreover, we argue here that many of the tasks employed to examine these mechanisms, may not be capable of indexing the attentional processes that they claim to measure. In this article, we provide a methodological review, critically evaluating the adequacy of previous tasks employed to measure biased attentional engagement and disengagement. Based on a number of concerns raised about the ability of such tasks to differentiate these component attentional processes, we detail three task criteria that we believe are essential to be confident that a task will accurately index biased attentional engagement with, and disengagement from threat in anxious participants.     

Body image concern and selective attention to disgusting and non-self appearance-related stimuli

Although selective attention to one's own appearance has been widely documented in studies of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), little is known about attentional bias toward non-self appearance-related stimuli in BDD. Furthermore, despite reports of heightened experience of disgust in BDD, it is unknown whether these individuals differentially attend to disgusting stimuli and whether disgust is important in processing of unattractive stimuli. We used a dot probe procedure to investigate the relationship between dysmorphic concern, a defining feature of BDD, and selective attention to faces, attractive, unattractive and disgusting images in a female heterosexual student population (N = 92). At the long stimulus presentation (1000 ms), dysmorphic concern was positively associated with attention to faces in general and attractive appearance-related images. In contrast, at the short stimulus presentation (200 ms), there was a positive association between dysmorphic concern and disgusting images. Implications for theoretical models of BDD are discussed.     

男性对女性面孔吸引力的认知偏好: 来自ERP的证据

运用事件相关电位(ERPs)技术, 采用学习-再认实验任务, 探讨了男性对有、无吸引力女性面孔图片进行判断和再认时脑内时程的动态变化。行为数据结果表明, 男性对有吸引力女性面孔的反应时更长, 再认正确率更高。ERP结果发现, 有、无吸引力面孔诱发的ERP早成分和晚成分都存在显著差异, 最强效应出现在大脑皮层的中前部。在判断任务和再认任务中, 有吸引力的女性面孔都比无吸引力的女性面孔诱发出更大的ERP成分(分别为N300、P350~550ms和P160、N300~500ms、P500~700ms)。结果表明, 男性对有吸引力的女性面孔的判断和再认存在偏好。     

Smoking cessation among Norwegian adolescents and young adults: preferred cessation methods

Despite generally declining smoking rates, particularly among young people, a large number of people remain smokers and many young people still pick up smoking. Helping smokers quit therefore remains a high priority for the public health sector. In the present study we examined adolescents and young adults' preferences regarding cessation methods and if these differed between genders and depended on smoking frequency. The data came from a nationally representative survey in Norway among 16-20 year olds. Only regular (weekly and daily) smokers were included in the statistical analyses (n = 509, 51% females). The findings suggest that the majority of both male (83.6%) and female (78.4%) smokers would prefer to quit smoking without help. More males than females reported that they would consider using snus as a cessation aid, while females more often reported willingness to attend cessation classes or use brochures and diaries as cessation aids. Both males and females had similar preferences albeit low, regarding the use of health services, nicotine gum or patches and internet and sms-services to quit smoking. Daily smokers would more often than weekly smokers prefer to attend cessation classes, seek help from health services, use nicotine gum or patches or use brochures and diaries. In contrast, weekly smokers preferred to use snus as a cessation aid more often than daily smokers. Identifying and making appropriate cessation methods attractive may lead to successful quitting and consequently public health gains.     

Selective Visual Attention and Motivation: The Consequences of Value Learning in an Attentional Blink Task

ABSTRACT— Learning to associate the probability and value of behavioral outcomes with specific stimuli (value learning) is essential for rational decision making. However, in demanding cognitive conditions, access to learned values might be constrained by limited attentional capacity. We measured recognition of briefly presented faces seen previously in a value-learning task involving monetary wins and losses; the recognition task was performed both with and without constraints on available attention. Regardless of available attention, recognition was substantially enhanced for motivationally salient stimuli (i.e., stimuli highly predictive of outcomes), compared with equally familiar stimuli that had weak or no motivational salience, and this effect was found regardless of valence (win or loss). However, when attention was constrained (because stimuli were presented during an attentional blink, AB), valence determined recognition; win-associated faces showed no AB, but all other faces showed large ABs. Motivational salience acts independently of attention to modulate simple perceptual decisions, but when attention is limited, visual processing is biased in favor of reward-associated stimuli.     

Time-course of attention to negative stimuli: Negative affectivity, anxiety, or dysphoria?

Although biased attention to emotional stimuli is considered a vulnerability factor for anxiety and dysphoria, research has infrequently related such attentional biases to dimensional models of vulnerability for anxiety and mood disorders. In two studies (Study 1, n = 64; Study 2, n = 168), we evaluate the differential associations of general negative affectivity, anxiety, and dysphoria with biases in selective attention among nonclinical participants selected to vary in both anxiety and dysphoria. Across both studies, preferential processing of angry faces at a 300-ms exposure duration was associated with a general tendency to experience a range of negative affect, rather than being specific to symptoms of either anxiety or dysphoria. In the second study, we found evidence of a suppressor relationship between anxiety and dysphoria in the prediction of delayed attentional biases (1,000 ms) for sad faces. In particular, dysphoria was specifically associated with biased attention toward sad cues, but only after statistically accounting for anxiety; by contrast, anxiety was specifically associated with attentional avoidance of sad cues, but only after statistically accounting for dysphoria. These results suggest that the specificity of relationships between components of negative affectivity and attention to emotional stimuli varies as a function of the time course at which attentional biases are assessed, highlighting the importance of evaluating both anxiety and dysphoria in research on attentional processing of emotional stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).