Genetic and adoptive motherhood: Stress,marital relationship,and child care support

In this paper we characterize adoptive and genetic motherhood with or without stress indicators. Participants were 86 mothers (36 adoptive, 50 genetic) with children from 0 to 12 years old. They answered questions about focal child and mother profile, marital relationship, child care support and the Lipp's Stress Symptoms Inventory for Adults. Results showed that mothers in both groups reported child care support, but there was more participation of nonrelatives in the care of adoptive children and relatives in the care of genetic children. There was greater marital stability and less conflict with the arrival of the child in the adoptive families and predominance of stress indicators in genetic mothers. We concluded that, although there are differences between adoptive and genetic motherhood, these do not imply advantages for one versus the other. Moreover, marital stability related to the adoption process and sociodemographic characteristics of adoptive mothers may have contributed to lower prevalence of stress.     

Adoption is Not Abortion‐Lite

It is standardly taken for granted in the literature on the morality of abortion that adoption is almost always an available and morally preferable alternative to abortion — one that does the same thing so far as parenthood is concerned. This assumption pushes proponents of a woman's right to choose into giving arguments that are based almost exclusively around the physicality of pregnancy and childbirth. On the other side of the debate, the assumption that adoption is a real alternative seems to strengthen the contention that a woman who wishes to abort is morally deficient, whatever the status of the foetus: that she is selfish or short‐sighted in her refusal to bear the temporary physical burden of pregnancy. In this article, I will argue that adoption is not a genuine alternative to abortion. It does not ‘do the same thing’, even setting aside the physicality of pregnancy. I will show that on the most successful model of parental obligation — a causal account that formalises the distinction between parent: progenitor, and parent: carer — birth mothers and fathers remain obliged, life‐long, to their birth children even when the child is adopted out.     

The intergenerational transmission of fear of failure

The intergenerational transmission of fear of failure was examined in two studies with undergraduates and their parents. Parent-undergraduate concordance in fear of failure was documented for mothers and fathers, controlling for parents' and undergraduate's impression management and self-deceptive enhancement response tendencies. Love withdrawal was validated as a mediator of parent-undergraduate concordance in fear of failure for mothers but not for fathers. Mothers' and fathers' fear of failure was also a positive predictor of undergraduate's adoption of performance-avoidance goals in the classroom, and undergraduate's fear of failure was shown to mediate this relationship. Fathers' fear of failure was also a negative predictor of undergraduate's mastery goal adoption, and this relationship was likewise mediated by undergraduate's fear of failure. The results are discussed in terms of the reorienting of positive, appetitive achievement motivation toward negative, aversive achievement motivation.     

Affective interactions of depressed and nondepressed mothers and their children

The expressed affect of clinically depressed and nondepressed mothers as measured by the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia: Lifetime Version (SADSL) and their children (1 1/2 to 3 1/2 years) was observed in seminatural situations. The objectives were to investigate how maternal depression enters into affective interactions between mother and child and how the affect patterns of mother and child are related. Fortynine unipolar and 24 bipolar depressed mothers and 45 nondepressed mothers were observed on 2 days, 2 weeks apart, for a total of 5 h. Each minute was coded for the predominant affect of mother and child. Affects relevant to depression (anxioussad, irritableangry, downcast, pleasant, tenderaffectionate) were coded. Depressed mothers expressed significantly more negative affect than did control mothers. Mothers' expressed affect and their selfreports of affect on days of observation were unrelated. Mother's and child's affects, measured on different days, were significantly correlated. Unipolar mothers and mothers severely depressed spent significantly more time in prolonged bouts of negative affect. There was significant synchrony between their bouts and the negative bouts of their daughters. Gender of child was related to mother's and child's affect, and to relations between mother's and child's affect.     

Perceived information ownership and control: Negotiating communication preferences in potential adoption reunions

In this study, the tension adoptees feel between learning information about their past and protecting themselves from negative or unwanted information about their birth/adoption was explored. Specifically, communication privacy management theory was used to explore adoptee preferences for information during a potential reunion with their birth mother/family. Findings suggest adoptees' preferences for information ownership and control correspond to the following privacy rules: (a) permeably boundary privacy rules, (b) privacy rule calibrations of boundary access, (c) protection privacy rules, and (d) privacy rules restricting boundary access. In addition, adoptees often expressed that they would like their birth mothers to serve as information guardians, revealing desired information and concealing unwanted disclosures. By assuming this guardian role, birth mothers and adoptees might have less stressful reunions, especially if both parties have similar expectations for information preferences.     

How Stable is the Well-Being of Australian Mothers Who Care for Young Children with Special Health Care Needs?

Ninety-seven percent of children who have special health care needs are cared for by their mothers. These mothers cite that their informal care work can be intrinsically rewarding, however, the role is not without substantial difficulties and consequences. We investigated differences in the health and well-being of mothers whose young children do and do not have special health care needs. Quantitative data are drawn from Growing Up in Australia: The Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. This study employs a matched-case control methodology to compare the experiences of a group of 292 mothers whose children are identified as having long term special health care needs to those mothers whose children are typically developing at two time points; Wave 1 (2004) and Wave 3 (2008). The findings support previous research that mothers of children with special health care needs have poorer general health and mental health than mothers whose children do not have special needs. Mothers of children with special health care needs also perceived life as more difficult. Longitudinally, this study also shows that maternal well-being remains relatively stable during the years when children are transitioning to formal schooling. Implications for policy makers, practitioners and early childhood professionals are discussed.     

Mothers' perceptions of infant affect in a croatian sample: The IFEEL pictures assessment

Recent work demonstrates systematic variability in mothers' perceptions of infant affects in adolescent, depressed, abusive, and preterm mothers (Emde, Osofsky,&Butterfield, 1993). This Croatian study, completed before the war in the former Yugoslavia, reports cultural differences and similarities in mothers' interpretation of infant affect in 103 mothers of healthy, full-term Croatian infants when compared to an American sample. The IFEEL Pictures (IFP) were administered to assess mothers' perception and interpretation of infants' facial expressions. Comparisons of the IFP scores for Croatian and American mothers revealed significant differences in 3 of 12 affect categories, controlling for education. Croatian mothers with different educational backgrounds showed significant differences in their perceptions of infants' affects. Differences between American mothers and Croatian educated mothers were less marked than those between Croatian high-educated and low-educated mothers. Our work suggests that there are cultural differences and similarities in affect interpretation between Croatian and American mothers. If this finding holds, it suggests that studies are needed of the effects if any, on mother-child interaction and child-rearing patterns, and possible differences in cross-cultural affect development.     

Cultural differences in mothers' developmental goals and ethnotheories

The influence of ecocultural context on parents' image of the adaptive adult is explored via a comparison between the child‐rearing goals and ethnotheories of 20 immigrant mothers from the former Soviet Union and 20 Israeli‐born mothers. It is assumed that parents' socializing practices are premised on developmental ethnotheories reflecting societal child rearing models and expectations for children's development. The image of the “adaptive adult” in parents' country of origin is so fundamentally ingrained in their beliefs about child rearing that it is retained after immigration, and is integrated with aspects of the image of adaptive adulthood which prevails in the host culture. The current study explored (through semistructured interviews) mothers' developmental ethnotheories concerning the nature of development, how it can be influenced, and why it should be influenced, with regard to cognitive competence, autonomy, emotional regulation, and social understanding and behaviour of their 3–4‐year‐old children. It also explored their goals and expectations for their children as adults. Analysis of the interviews with Israeli‐born and immigrant mothers lends support to the main thesis of this study. Mothers of both groups would like their children to grow into intelligent, joyful, and independent adults, to be well educated and to hold prestigious occupations. All of the mothers assume, moreover, that much of child development should be promoted through the active involvement of parents. Israeli‐born mothers, however, place a greater emphasis on social competence, autonomy, and leadership, whereas the emphasis of the Soviet‐born mothers is on achievement, emotional control, efficiency, and organization. The differences and similarities between the two groups of mothers are discussed in the context of their respective ecocultural backgrounds. It is proposed that each group's ethnotheories, developmental goals, and aspirations for their children reflect their respective values, perceptions, and understanding of the reality in which they raise their children. These values and perceptions seem, in turn, related to the respective ecocultures in which they were raised, as well as the one in which they rear their own children.     

Adoption vs. parenting decisions among pregnant adolescents

The choice of adoption is rare among pregnant adolescents. This exploratory study used regression analyses to ascertain which demographic, social, and intervention variables were related to this decision. The adolescents with mothers who favored adoption and/or had few parenting peer models were more likely to choose adoption. Age, knowledge of peers who had chosen adoption, grades in school, level of involvement in a comprehensive adolescent pregnancy program, and participation in individual therapy or Decision-Making Group were not significantly related to the decision. Decision-Making Group is a once-a-week therapy session that focuses on adoption vs. parenting decisions for pregnant adolescents. Eighty-seven percent of the adolescents who participated in these sessions found them helpful. The policy implications for adolescent pregnancy programs are explored.     

I Love to Tell the Story: Reshaping the Narrative of Adoption

Abstract : This article argues that a Christian theological understanding of adoption can be a helpful corrective to some of the negative interpretations and assumptions around adoption that continue to circulate in secular culture. The article proceeds as follows: First, I argue that the way in which Christians understand and describe the experience of being adopted into God's family counters the idea that one's birth family is one's “real” family. Second, I argue that a Christian understanding of adoption mitigates the tendency to view adoption as a sort of “Plan B.” Finally, I argue that because of the value Christians place on caring for those in need, and the replacement of kin relationships with relationships of love and faith, the metaphor of adoption can and should be used more widely, to create broader networks of family that encompass far more than mere blood ties.     

Maternal views on aggression: Japan and Israel

Maternal views on aggressive behavior in their children were investigated in Japan and Israel. Sixty Japanese and 60 Israeli mothers of kindergarten children were interviewed individually about their children's fighting and quarreling. The findings indicate that both Japanese and Israeli mothers disapprove of their children's aggression on the basis of their value system, but their views of the same aggressive behavior differ considerably; Japanese mothers consider aggression among children as natural; aggression is a fact of life which has its constructive as well as destructive aspects, but it should be kept under control in order not to cause harm to others. Israeli mothers consider their children's aggression to be dangerous both for the child and for the relationship with the opponent. It is approved as a reaction to assault, mainly in self-defense and considered caused by emotions, tension, and lack of self-control. Thus, aggression is perceived by Japanese mothers as a natural and necessary aspect of development, while Israeli mothers perceive the same behaviors as justified mainly as reactions to assault or provocation and as expressing negative emotional states. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Preschoolers' response to maternal sadness: Relationships with maternal depression and emotional availability

Previous research has documented that children of depressed mothers are at risk for a variety of emotional/behavioral problems and impairments in mother-child interaction. Depressed mothers have been characterized as withdrawn and unavailable. The present study examined behavior of preschool children of depressed and nondepressed mothers in response to their mothers' feigned sadness. The study assessed maternal depression and maternal emotional availability to determine how these related to preschoolers' expression of empathy. Sixty-two mothers and their 3 1/2-year-olds participated in the study. Mother-child interaction was coded from four tasks: free play, eating a snack, problem solving, and sadness simulation. Children of depressed mothers were not less empathic than children of nondepressed mothers. However, the mother's mood on day of testing related to child response. Maternal emotional availability interacted with the credibility/intensity of her simulation of sadness to predict child empathy.     

Quality of Mother-Child Interaction and the Intergenerational Transmission of Sexual Values: A Panel Study

The role of mothers as socializing agents was examined in a longitudinal study. It was assumed that mothers can transmit their own values to their children, especially if the quality of their interaction is good. Whether children influence their mothers' values was also examined. The hypotheses were tested using analysis of variance and structural equation modeling, drawing on data from 253 English adolescent-mother pairs. The results provided little support for the hypotheses. There was some evidence that mothers influenced their children's sexual attitudes, but this effect was found for the families characterized by a low quality of parent-child interaction, rather than for the families characterized by a high quality of interaction. No evidence was found for the assumption that children influence their mothers' sexual attitudes and beliefs. Implications of the study for future research are discussed.     

Does the Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption Adequately Protect Orphaned and Vulnerable Children and Their Families?

The Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption, designed to protect the best interests of the child in intercountry adoption, has been signed by 83 nations. We evaluate both the strengths and the weaknesses of the Convention in achieving this purpose and also in protecting a second vulnerable population, birth families. A case study example of the United States’ implementation of the Hague requirements reveals several weaknesses with respect to non-Convention countries as sending nations, financial oversight, and oversight of foreign collaborators. International birth families, especially birth mothers giving consent to an adoption, are often vulnerable because of a lack of power and resources, as well as different cultural understandings of the nature of family and adoption. We conclude that in order to protect vulnerable children and birth families, individual sending and receiving countries need to supplement the Hague Convention with specific, contextually appropriate laws and regulations.     

Girls' and boys' perception of mothers' intentions of using physical punishment and reasoning as discipline methods

The aim of this study was to examine Swedish children's perceptions of mothers' intentions of using physical punishment and reasoning, as well as their evaluations of the mothers as being good parents. Six- to nine-year-old children were interviewed. Children's evaluations as well as reports of mothers' intentions varied according to the type of vignette presented (discipline in response to child aggression, or in response to child non-compliance), and their own parents' childrearing attitudes. Children who said that mothers who use physical punishment were “good mothers” were more likely to have parents with more traditional childrearing attitudes, and were older. Older children also evaluated mother's use of reasoning, and perceived greater intentionality in this form of discipline, compared to younger children. No gender differences were found either for perception of intention or evaluation of the mother.     

Bingeing,purging, and estimates of parental attitudes regarding female achievement

A questionnaire measuring respondents' beliefs about the attitudes regarding female achievement held by their parents was distributed to 326 women attending a state university. Women who report frequent bingeing are more likely than other women to report that (1) their parents believed a woman's place is in the home (2) their mothers were unhappy with their own careers, (3) their fathers thought the respondents' mothers were not intelligent, and (4) their fathers treated a male as the most intelligent sibling in the family. Reports of fathers' attitudes regarding mothers' intelligence and the proper role for women are related to respondents' self-reports of purging, but only among those women who are much more concerned with academic achievement than with household skills.     

Maternal unresolved attachment status impedes the effectiveness of interventions with adolescent mothers

Children of adolescent mothers are at risk for a variety of developmental difficulties. In the present study, the effectiveness of a brief intervention program designed to support adolescent mothers' sensitivity to their infants' attachment signals was evaluated. Participants were adolescent mothers and their infants who were observed at 6, 12, and 24 months of age. The intervention conducted by clinically trained home visitors consisted of eight home visits between 6 and 12 months in which mothers were provided feedback during the replay of videotaped play interactions. At 12 months, 57% of the mother–infant dyads in the intervention group and 38% of the comparison group dyads were classified as secure in the Strange Situation. Seventy‐six percent of the mothers in the intervention group maintained sensitivity from 6 to 24 months compared with 54% of the comparison mothers. Further analyses indicated that the intervention was effective primarily for mothers who were not classified as Unresolved on the Adult Attachment Interview.     

The adaptation process of mothers to the birth of children with Down Syndrome and its psychotherapeutic assistance: A retrospective approach

The findings of Niwa/Tanaka's studies on mothers' adaptation process to Down Syndrome infants through prospective and long-term intervention were reeaxmined through mothers' retrospective accounts of their past experiences. Fifteen mothers volunteered to participate in clinical interviews prepared for this purpose. The following results were obtained from the interviews: (1) The adaptation of mothers of Down Syndrome children involved a process enduring far beyond the initial shock, so that long-term longitudinal support and intervention, both developmental and psychotherapeutic, were necessary; (2) The subjects experienced intense psychological shock twice before their children reached school age, as we had predicted through our clinical experiences. An adaptation process consisting of five stages was observed; (3) Although the maternal affects experienced by the Japanese mothers in their process of adaptation generally looked similar to those of American and British mothers, some affective reactions were discovered that seemed to reflect existing Japanese social conditions and cultural peculiarities by which these mothers were deeply influenced; (4) A tentative model for intervention to support mothers' adaptatipn process is proposed based on the findings of the present study.     

Mothers’ Perceptions of Young Children,Parenting, and Young Children's Behavior Problems

Historically, research demonstrates that mothers’ attitudes and characteristics of their parenting are intertwined. More recently, mothers’ perceptions of their children are becoming a new focus of interest. To further understand the relationships among mothers’ perceptions of their young children, their parenting behaviors, and their ratings of their young children's behavior problems, this study examines the ratings of a diverse group of mothers who have young children. Correlational results of this study demonstrate that these variables are related in the anticipated directions. Further, results of regression analyses suggest that mothers’ positive and negative perceptions of their young children and their use of limit setting are important in predicting children's behavior problems. These findings suggest that interventions focusing on changing mothers’ perceptions of their young children as well as their parenting behaviors may be related to decreases in young children's behavior problems.     

On Okin's critique of libertarianism

Susan Moller Okin's critique of libertarianism in Justice, Gender, and the Family has received only slight attention in the libertarian literature. I find this neglect of Okin's argument surprising: The argument is straightforward and, if sound, it establishes a devastating conflict between the core libertarian notions of self-ownership and the acquisition of property through labour. In this paper, I first present a reconstruction of Okin's argument. In brief, she points out that mothers make children through their labour; thus it would seem that mothers own their (adult) children; but this implies that the children are not self-owners. I then examine the two most common objections to this argument in the literature: mothers do not make children, and acquisition by labour includes an exception for persons. I give several replies to each objection, including an extension of Okin's argument that I call Okin's dilemma. This dilemma argues that the libertarian can avoid Okin's conclusion only by requiring an involuntary property transfer. And this alternative, it seems, is just as unacceptable for many libertarians. I close with some speculation about the further implications of Okin's dilemma for libertarianism.