Impact of attachment style on reactions to accommodative dilemmas in close relationships

Four studies examined reactions to accommodative dilemmas in ongoing close relationships, exploring the association between adult attachment style—secure, avoidant, and anxious-ambivalent—and four possible modes of reaction—exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. Consistent with predictions, it was shown that which close partners enact potentially destructive behaviors, insecurely attached individuals tend to react in a more defensive and destructive manner. Specifically, in comparison to secure individuals, insecure individuals were more likely to react to accommodative dilemmas with exit and neglect, and were less likely to react with voice. Contrary to predictions, individuals with avoidant and anxious-ambivalent styles did not differ in their reactions to accommodative dilemmas. The implications of these findings for understanding reactions to emotionally threatening interpersonal situations are discussed.     

The impact of gender and sex-role orientation on responses to dissatisfaction in close relationships

Three studies were designed to examine the relationships among gender, sex role orientation, and responses to dissatisfaction in close relationships. Four ways of reacting to dissatisfaction were explored: (a) exit — ending or threatening to end the relationship; (b) voice — activity and constructively attempting to improve conditions; (c) loyalty — passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve; and (d) neglect — passively allowing conditions to deteriorate. Study 1 assessed generalized responses among university students; Study 2 assessed generalized responses among adults residing in the local community; and Study 3 assessed response tendencies among lesbian, gay male, and heterosexual women and men. Greater psychological femininity was consistently associated with greater tendencies to respond to relationship problems with voice and loyalty. However, there was little evidence of a link between level of femininity and tendencies to respond with exit and neglect. Greater psychological masculinity was associated with lesser tendencies toward voice and loyalty, and there was some evidence of a link between high psychological masculinity and tendencies toward exit and neglect. Gender was not consistently related to response tendencies, though there was very weak evidence that in comparison to females, males may be more likely to engage in exit and neglect responses.The authors wish to express their gratitude to Randall James, Chip Mainous, and Leisa Maxwell for their help in conducting these studies, and to the Gay and Lesbian University Students Organization for their help in conducting Study 3. We also thank Dr. David Lowery for useful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.     

Loyal but ignored: The benefits and costs of constructive communication behavior

The consequences of exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect behavior were examined using retrospective questionnaires (Study 1) and 2 social interaction diary studies (Study 2). Exit and neglect were generally associated with more negative partner responses and reduced feelings of value and closeness, and were reported to be more harmful to the relationship. Voice was associated with more positive partner responses and greater value and intimacy, and was perceived to be most beneficial to the relationship. In contrast, loyalty was perceived to have the same detrimental consequences as destructive behaviors (Study 1) and did not predict more positive outcomes within daily interactions (Study 2). These results indicate that, despite good intentions, loyal intimates are often left feeling ignored and unappreciated.     

Dysfunctional beliefs, self-monitoring, and marital conflict

Relationships among relationship beliefs, self-monitoring and conflict behavior were examined in 74 married couples. It was predicted that dysfunctional relationship beliefs would be negatively correlated with marital satisfaction and that high self-monitoring spouses would endorse more dysfunctional relationship beliefs and display more disagreeing and leadership conflict behavior. Dysfunctional beliefs were negatively correlated with satisfaction but low and high self-monitors did not differ in their conflict behavior. Discriminant analyses indicated that marital distress was a function of endorsement of dysfunctional relationship beliefs; decreased satisfaction with decisions; increased conflict relevance; and increased impression management reflected in high self-monitoring orientations among husbands and wives’ beliefs that their husbands were not behaving “normally.” The contribution of gender and impression management to marital distress is discussed. This study was funded by a University of Wisconsin-Madison faculty research grant awarded to the author.     

When Bureaucrats Get the Blues: Responses to Dissatisfaction Among Federal Employees

Rusbult and Farrell's general model of responses to job dissatisfaction is utilized to assess reactions to declining satisfaction among public sector employees. Four general categories of response-exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect-are described and explored. Data from the "Federal Employee Attitude Survey, 1979" were examined to evaluate the predictive ability of the Rusbult and Farrell model. Consistent with their model, higher levels of employee satisfaction and greater degree of investment size encouraged tendencies toward voice and loyalty while discouraging exit and neglect. Also, higher quality job alternatives promoted exit and voice while inhibiting neglectful tendencies. Contrary to predictions, better alternatives also encouraged loyalist responding. The implications of these findings in light of increasing dissatisfaction in the federal bureaucracy are discussed.     

Individual difference variables in close relationships: a contextual model of marriage as an integrative framework

We examined and refined a contextual model of marriage (Bradbury & Fincham, 1987) in order to organize the associations between individual difference variables and satisfaction in close relationships. Seventy-eight spouses were administered instruments assessing marital satisfaction and individual differences in femininity, masculinity, dysfunctional relationship beliefs, and causal and responsibility attributions for marital difficulties. As predicted, higher levels of satisfaction were related to femininity and to partner's femininity, and lower levels of satisfaction were related to dysfunctional beliefs and less benign attributions. More important, two competing hypotheses relating to the contextual model were tested. A model in which the transitory, or proximal, context (e.g., responsibility attributions for specific relationship events) mediates the relation between the stable, or distal, context (e.g., general beliefs about relationships) and satisfaction was refuted. Support was obtained, however, for a model in which proximal and distal variables both account for unique variance in marital satisfaction. The usefulness of distinguishing between transitory and stable variables and the implications of the contextual model for organizing research on close relationships are discussed.     

DYSFUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIP BELIEFS IN MARITAL CONFLICT

The purpose of this study is to investigate the association between dysfunctional relationship beliefs and marital conflict of nonclinical married individuals. Interpersonal Cognitive Distortions Scale and Married Life Questionnaire were completed by a sample consisting of 182 married men and women. As hypothesized before, dysfunctional relationship beliefs correlated positively with the number and frequency of marital conflicts and the level of tension felt related to such conflicts. Dysfunctional relationship beliefs indicated the highest correlations with the frequency of marital conflicts. The beliefs related to mind reading were negatively associated with marital conflicts of women. When individuals endorsed high dysfunctional beliefs, they experienced more conflict in their marital relationship and felt more stressful. In addition, individuals experiencing conflict on 10 out of 30 issues had high level of dysfunctional beliefs. In conclusion, the results of this study have demonstrated the negative consequences of dysfunctional beliefs on marital conflict.     

A longitudinal analysis of financial loss,anxiety, destructive conflict,and relational maintenance

This study examined how destructive conflict behavior and relational maintenance behavior are linked to financial loss in adult romantic relationships. Based on conservation of resources (COR) theory, it was hypothesized that financial loss indirectly (through anxiety) predicts increased destructive conflict behavior and decreased relational maintenance behavior. Across three waves of data, results indicated that financial loss significantly predicted passive‐destructive conflict behavior (i.e., neglect) through anxiety. Financial loss did not, however, directly or indirectly predict active‐destructive conflict behavior (i.e., exit). Financial loss negatively predicted relational maintenance behavior, but that effect was found only from Wave 1 to Wave 2 and was not mediated by anxiety. Overall, results support COR theory and identify some of the specific relational consequences of financial difficulty.     

Responses to dissatisfaction in romantic involvements: A multidimensional scaling analysis

Two multidimensional scaling studies were conducted to develop a comprehensive, inductively derived typology of responses to dissatisfaction in romantic involvements. Study 1 examined the responses of an undergraduate population, and Study 2 explored the reactions of a more heterogeneous, adult sample. The studies revealed similar patterns of results. In both Study 1 and Study 2, four general categories of response to dissatisfaction were observed: (a) exit—ending or actively abusing the relationship; (b) voice—actively attempting to improve conditions; (c) loyalty—passively waiting for conditions to improve; and (d) neglect—passively allowing the relationship to deteriorate. Two dimensions were distinguished among the response categories—constructiveness/destructiveness and activity/passivity. Voice and loyalty were judged to be constructive behaviors, while exit and neglect were viewed as relatively more destructive. And exit and voice were seen as fairly active, while loyalty and neglect were judged to be more passive (this effect was stronger in Study 1 than in Study 2). These findings provide good support for the Rusbult, Zembrodt, and Gunn (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1982, 43, 1230–1242) model of responses to dissatifaction in romantic involvements.     

Psychological distress with relationship satisfaction is moderated by anticipatory relational savoring among non-deployed military partners

This study recruited participants whose partners were deployed for active-duty military service to examine whether anticipatory relational savoring moderated the association of psychological distress with relationship satisfaction. Two weeks prior to their partner's deployment (T1), participants (N = 73) completed a self-report measure of relationship satisfaction. Then, 2 weeks into their partner's deployment (T2), participants completed self-report measures of stress, loneliness, and depression (combined into a composite index of psychological distress), and relationship satisfaction. Participants also completed a stream-of-consciousness task at T2 in which they imagined and discussed their partner's return from deployment. We coded the stream-of-consciousness task for anticipatory relational savoring regarding their upcoming reunion with their deployed partner. We found that anticipatory relational savoring moderated the association of psychological distress with during-deployment relationship satisfaction after adjusting for demographics, interpersonal variables, and deployment-specific variables; the association did not hold after adjusting for pre-deployment relationship satisfaction, and thus was robust when considering the distress-satisfaction association during the deployment but was not when considering changes in relationship satisfaction from pre- to during-deployment. We discuss the potential importance of anticipatory relational savoring for this unique population.     

Perfectionism, beliefs, and adjustment in dating relationships

Two studies examined the extent to which dimensions of perfectionism are associated with indices of relationship beliefs, behaviors, and dyadic adjustment. In Study 1, 69 students in dating relationships completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and a multidimensional measure of relationship beliefs. In addition, partici-pants completed self-report measures of positive and negative relationship behaviors, and global measures of liking and loving. In Study 2, 91 students in dating relation-ships completed a battery of measures including the MPS and scales assessing perfec-tionism cognitions and perfectionistic self presentation. They also completed mea-sures of dyadic adjustment and limerence (i.e., intense, obsessive low with fears of rejection). Collectively, the findings indicated that individuals with high levels of self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism have stronger relationship beliefs in the areas of communication, trust, and support, suggesting that these perfec-tionists have high relationship standards in these particular areas. Although social prescribed perfectionism had little association with specific relationship beliefs, so-cially prescribed perfectionism was associated with a tendency to display destructive relationship responses (i.e., exit, neglect, and insensitivity), lower dyadic adjustment, and various aspects of limerence, including obsessive preoccupations and emotional dependence on the dating partner. Perfectionistic self-presentation and perfectionism cognitions were also linked with aspects of limerence. The results suggest that inter-personal aspects of perfectionism are associated with self-defeating tendencies in dating relationships. This research was supported, in part, by grant #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors. The authors wish to thank Lisa Davidson for her assistance with the data analyses in Study 1. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Gordon L. Flett, Department of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M3J 1P3.     

More than a feeling: discrete emotions mediate the relationship between relative deprivation and reactions to workplace furloughs

A key insight from investigations of individual relative deprivation (IRD) is that people can experience objective disadvantages differently. In this study, university faculty (N = 953) who reported greater IRD in response to a mandatory furlough (i.e., involuntary pay reductions) were more likely to (a) voice options designed to improve the university (voice), (b) consider leaving their job (exit), and (c) neglect their work responsibilities (neglect), but were (d) less likely to express loyalty to the university (loyalty). Consistent with the emotions literature, (a) anger mediated the relationship between IRD and voice, (b) fear between IRD and exit, (c) sadness between IRD and neglect, and (d) gratitude between IRD and loyalty. IRD was inversely associated with self-reported physical and mental health via these different emotional pathways. These results show how discrete emotions can explain responses to IRD and, in turn, contribute to organizational viability and the health of its members.     

Perfectionism, beliefs, and adjustment in dating relationships

Two studies examined the extent to which dimensions of perfectionism are associated with indices of relationship beliefs, behaviors, and dyadic adjustment. In Study 1, 69 students in dating relationships completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and a multidimensional measure of relationship beliefs. In addition, partici-pants completed self-report measures of positive and negative relationship behaviors, and global measures of liking and loving. In Study 2, 91 students in dating relation-ships completed a battery of measures including the MPS and scales assessing perfec-tionism cognitions and perfectionistic self presentation. They also completed mea-sures of dyadic adjustment and limerence (i.e., intense, obsessive low with fears of rejection). Collectively, the findings indicated that individuals with high levels of self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism have stronger relationship beliefs in the areas of communication, trust, and support, suggesting that these perfec-tionists have high relationship standards in these particular areas. Although social prescribed perfectionism had little association with specific relationship beliefs, so-cially prescribed perfectionism was associated with a tendency to display destructive relationship responses (i.e., exit, neglect, and insensitivity), lower dyadic adjustment, and various aspects of limerence, including obsessive preoccupations and emotional dependence on the dating partner. Perfectionistic self-presentation and perfectionism cognitions were also linked with aspects of limerence. The results suggest that inter-personal aspects of perfectionism are associated with self-defeating tendencies in dating relationships. This research was supported, in part, by grant #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors. The authors wish to thank Lisa Davidson for her assistance with the data analyses in Study 1. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Gordon L. Flett, Department of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M3J 1P3.     

The moderating effect of power distance on employee responses to psychological contract breach

Understanding how employees’ cultural values are related to their responses to promises broken by their organizations (i.e., psychological contract breach) is important given today’s global workplace. Although past research has found that psychological contract breach is positively associated with employee exit, voice and neglect and negatively associated with loyalty, we know little about the role that cultural values play in this process. We explore the role that power distance orientation—an employee’s acceptance of power differentials in society—plays in employee responses to breach. We argue that employees with high power distance orientations will be more likely to respond passively to breach (loyalty and neglect), whereas employees with low power distance orientations will be more likely to exhibit active responses to psychological contract breach (exit and voice). We tested our notions using a sample of 265 employees from different cultures across two points in time. Employees with high power distance orientations were less likely to respond to psychological contract breach with exit and voice than employees with low power distance orientations. However, power distance orientation did not significantly moderate the relationships between psychological contract breach and neglect or loyalty, respectively. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of our findings.     

How do friendship maintenance behaviors and problem‐solving styles function at the individual and dyadic levels?

Friendship maintenance behaviors and problem‐solving styles are both important for relationship satisfaction and commitment. However, the association between maintenance and problem‐solving styles is unclear. Furthermore, it has not been determined if maintenance and problem‐solving styles are individual‐ or dyadic‐level behaviors. One hundred forty‐eight friendship dyads completed measures of friendship maintenance, problem solving, and satisfaction/commitment. Utilizing the pairwise latent variable model (G. Griffin & R. Gonzalez, 1995), this research found that although there were both individual‐ and dyadic‐level components, maintenance behaviors occurred primarily at the dyadic level, but problem‐solving styles tended to be more of an individual‐level behavior. Maintenance behaviors were positively correlated with the problem‐solving styles of voice and loyalty but were negatively correlated with neglect and exit. Furthermore, friendship maintenance behaviors predicted dyadic‐level satisfaction/commitment. However, problem‐solving behaviors predicted individual‐level satisfaction/commitment. The results are discussed in terms of implications for the friendship maintenance and problem‐solving literature.     

Construct Validity of the Perceived Criticism Measure

The construct validity of the Perceived Criticism Measure (PCM) was examined in 2 studies. In Study 1, 50 community couples participated in problem-solving interactions after which they rated interaction-specific perceived criticism and their criticism of their spouses. In addition, they provided ratings of perceived criticism for their relationship overall and completed measures of psychopathology and marital satisfaction. For both husbands and wives, convergent validity was demonstrated by moderate-to-large correlations between the PCM and spouses' own ratings of their criticism for both general and interaction-specific perceived criticism. In Study 2, 37 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and their spouses participated in problem-solving interactions and provided ratings of marital satisfaction and general perceived criticism. Five untrained coders rated the interactions according to their own definitions of the relatives' destructive criticism of the patient. Their aggregated ratings proved strongly related to patients' PCM scores. Higher PCM scores were related to lower marital satisfaction in both Studies 1 and 2. The results of these studies are supportive of the convergent validity of the Perceived Criticism Measure. Evidence of discriminant validity was mixed.     

The relationship between sex role characteristics,couple satisfaction and couple problem-solving skills

Abstract

This study explored the association between sex roles and relationship adjustment and communication skills. Baucom's (1976) sex role inventory was administered to couples who also reported on their relationship satisfaction and engaged in problem-solving exercises. Stepwise multiple regression analyses showed a significant positive relationship between femininity and satisfaction as well as between femininity and positive problem-solving behavior, and a significant negative relationship between femininity and aversive problem-solving strategies. Additional tests revealed no significant relationship between androgyny and either relationship satisfaction or problem-solving strategies. Results suggest that clinical interests might be better served by studies less focused on attempts to validate Bem's model of androgyny.     

Online/offline self-disclosure to offline friends and relational outcomes in a diary study: The moderating role of self-esteem and relational closeness

Previous work suggests that the experiences of online and offline self-disclosure are heterogeneous among individuals. Yet little work has been done to identify the moderating role of individual characteristics and pre-existing relationship characteristics on the diverse relational outcomes. The present study using a 7-day diary design examined whether individuals' self-esteem level and relational closeness would moderate the relationships between online and offline self-disclosure to offline friends and two relational outcomes, that is, relationship satisfaction and trust in friendships. The analyses on 686 diary responses from 98 participants revealed that offline self-disclosure generally predicted greater relationship satisfaction and trust in friendships, whereas the role of online self-disclosure was not statistically significant. More importantly, self-esteem moderated the pattern associated with offline self-disclosure but not that with online self-disclosure. Specifically, offline self-disclosure predicted greater benefits to people with lower self-esteem relative to people with higher self-esteem. Moreover, pre-existing relational closeness moderated the relationship between offline self-disclosure and trust in friendships such that casual friendships benefited more from offline self-disclosure than close friendships did. The present study highlights the importance of personal characteristics and relationship characteristics in understanding the heterogeneous relational influence of different communication modes.     

Bridging the Distance Between Us: How Initial Responses to Sales Team Conflict Help Shape Core Selling Team Outcomes

Intra-team conflict within core selling teams can shape team outcomes. Using congruency theory, we propose how conflict responses impact the relational distance between individuals in a core selling team, creating positive/negative team outcomes. Our framework suggests managers may improve team outcomes by monitoring sales team members' responses to conflict, encouraging internal cognitive voice behaviors, and intervening in teams not using internal cognitive voice behaviors when relational or process conflict exists. Our model helps explain the paradox in which an individual who is part of a “winning” team (one achieving its team goals) may still choose to exit the team.     

Trait interpersonal vulnerability attenuates beneficial effects of constructive criticism on failure responses

The extant literature on interpersonal criticism suggests that relative to destructive criticism, constructive criticism significantly minimizes the injurious psychological aftermath people experience after failure. However, we propose the possibility that for some people, these psychological benefits of constructive criticism are less apparent. Specifically, we hypothesized that for people high in trait interpersonal vulnerability, a construct marked by maladaptive cognitive‐emotional responses in interpersonal contexts and/or by dysfunctional relational concerns, effects of constructive (vs. destructive) criticism on reduced maladaptive appraisals will diminish, and this diminution of reduced maladaptive appraisals will predict downstream effects on worsened post‐failure mood. An experiment had a college sample (N = 349) complete four instruments represented under an interpersonal vulnerability construct (IVC). Next, participants imagined failing in various domains and receiving subsequent feedback from emotionally important others. Feedback type was manipulated to typify either destructive criticism or constructive criticism. Finally, participants provided ratings of maladaptive appraisals and post‐failure mood. Latent variable path modelling supported hypotheses. Effects of constructive (vs. destructive) criticism on reduced maladaptive appraisals (namely, shame proneness) diminished as IVC increased, which predicted worsened post‐failure mood. Findings have implications for multidisciplinary theoretical perspectives relevant to interpersonal vulnerability and offer practical considerations for clinicians working with vulnerable clients.