智力与心理速度的关系研究述评

目前在智力研究领域出现了一种新的研究趋势,研究者开始关注心理计量学智力与认知或生理心理学变量的相关,考察的重点是心理速度,相应的测量指标主要有检测时（IT）、反应时、ERP或神经传导速度,等等。在运用IT任务进行的ERP研究中发现,ERP波幅和潜伏期的不同往往能够反映出智力上的差异。信息加工速度和神经传导速度均与一般智力因素（g因素）存在较高的相关。上述研究发现促进了智力与心理速度关系的跨学科研究,成为智力研究领域中的热点     

Extending task analytic models of graph-based reasoning: A cognitive model of problem solving with Cartesian graphs in ACT-R/PM

Models of graph-based reasoning have typically accounted for the variation in problem solving performance with different graph types in terms of a task analysis of the problem relative to the particular visual properties of each graph type [e.g., Human Computer Interaction 8 (1993) 353; Proceedings of the Twenty-first Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ (1999) 531]. This approach has been used to explain response time and accuracy differences in experimental situations where data are averaged over experimental conditions. An experiment is reported in which participants’ eye movements were recorded while they were solving various problems with different graph types. The eye movement data revealed fine grained fixation patterns that are not captured by current analyses based on optimal fixation sequences. It is argued that these patterns reveal the effects of working memory limitations during the time course of problem solving. An ACT-R/PM model of the experiment is described in which a similar pattern of eye fixations is produced as a natural consequence of the decay in activation of perceptual chunks over time.     

Sex differences in the adolescent brain

Adolescence is a time of increased divergence between males and females in physical characteristics, behavior, and risk for psychopathology. Here we will review data regarding sex differences in brain structure and function during this period of the lifespan. The most consistent sex difference in brain morphometry is the 9–12% larger brain size that has been reported in males. Individual brain regions that have most consistently been reported as different in males and females include the basal ganglia, hippocampus, and amygdala. Diffusion tensor imaging and magnetization transfer imaging studies have also shown sex differences in white matter development during adolescence. Functional imaging studies have shown different patterns of activation without differences in performance, suggesting male and female brains may use slightly different strategies for achieving similar cognitive abilities. Longitudinal studies have shown sex differences in the trajectory of brain development, with females reaching peak values of brain volumes earlier than males. Although compelling, these sex differences are present as group averages and should not be taken as indicative of relative capacities of males or females.     

Error patterns in judgment and production of horizontal and vertical scale positions

Cyclic error curves are often found when people judge or set the position of a marker on a linear scale, but various different forms of cyclic pattern have been reported. Twelve subjects each made judgments and also made settings, both on a horizontal linear scale and on a vertical one. Analysis of their error patterns showed a strong tendency to generate the opposite pattern when the response mode changed from judgment to production of scale positions. This is interpreted as evidence that the errors arise from perceptual misjudgments rather than from response biases. Error patterns tended to remain constant for changes in scale orientation alone. Thus, the varying scale orientations do not seem to account for the reported discrepancies in pattern. However, it was found that different subjects could have opposite patterns in the same experimental condition. These were real individual differences because subjects’ patterns tended to persist across changes in orientation and to reverse with changes in response mode. It seems likely that the reported differences in pooled error trends reflect different assortments of subjects who differ fundamentally in their perception of linear scale positions.     

Solution strategies as possible explanations of individual and sex differences in a dynamic spatial task

When individuals perform spatial tasks, individual differences emerge in accuracy and speed as well as in the response patterns used to cope with the task. The purpose of this study is to identify, through empirical criteria, the different response patterns or strategies used by individuals when performing the dynamic spatial task presented in the Spatial Orientation Dynamic Test-Revised (SODT-R). Results show that participants can be classified according to their response patterns. Three different ways of solving a task are described, and their relation to (a) performance factors (response latency, response frequency, and invested time) and (b) ability tests (analytical reasoning, verbal reasoning, and spatial estimation) are investigated. Sex differences in response patterns and performance are also analyzed. It is found that the frequency with which men and women employ each one of the strategies described here, is different and statistically significant. Thus, employed strategy plays an important role when interpreting sex differences on dynamic spatial tasks.     

Hemispheric differences in visual search of simple line arrays

Summary The effects of perceptual organization on hemispheric visual-information processing were assessed with stimulus arrays composed of short lines arranged in columns. A visual-search task was employed in which subjects judged whether all the lines were vertical (same) or whether a single horizontal line was present (different). Stimulus-display organization was manipulated in two experiments by variation of line density, linear organization, and array size. In general, left-visual-field/right-hemisphere presentations demonstrated more rapid and accurate responses when the display was perceived as a whole. Right-visual-field/left-hemisphere superiorities were observed when the display organization coerced assessment of individual array elements because the physical qualities of the stimulus did not effect a gestalt whole. Response times increased somewhat with increases in array size, although these effects interacted with other stimulus variables. Error rates tended to follow the reaction-time patterns. The results suggest that laterality differences in visual search are governed by stimulus properties which contribute to, or inhibit, the perception of a display as a gestalt. The implications of these findings for theoretical interpretations of hemispheric specialization are discussed.     

Array training in a categorization task

Two components of categorization, within-category commonalities and between-category distinctiveness, were investigated in a categorization task. Subjects learned three prototype categories composed of moderately high distortions, by observing arrays containing patterns that belonged either to a common prototype category or to three different categories; a third group learned patterns presented one at a time, mirroring the standard paradigm. Following 6 learning blocks, subjects transferred to old patterns and new patterns at low-, medium-, and high-level distortions of the category prototype. The results showed that array training facilitated learning, especially when patterns in the array belonged to the same category. Transfer results showed a strong gradient effect across pattern distortion level for all conditions, with the highest performance obtained following array training on different category patterns and worst in the control condition. Interestingly, the old training patterns were classified worse than new low and no better than medium distortions. Neither this ordering nor the steepness of the gradient across prototype similarity for each condition could be predicted by the generalized context model. A prototype model better captured the steep gradient and ordinal pattern of results, although the overall fits were only slightly better than the exemplar model. The crucial role played by category commonalities and distinctiveness on categorical representations is addressed.     

Serial processing of visual spatial patterns in a search paradigm

Previous experiments in this laboratory employing a search paradigm have found highly significant differences in the detectability of a briefly exposed target pattern as a function of the spatial location of the target when it is presented simultaneously with a number of discriminably different nontarget patterns. These detectability differences, at loci equidistant from the fovea, could not be accounted for by any known variation in retinal spatial resolution or by differential lateral masking effects of the target by nearby nontarget patterns. These observations led to the hypothesis that the target in these experiments was detected by a serial mechanism which "scanned" a persisting but rapidly degrading neural representation of the visual scene with increasing detection failures the later in time the scan processed the location occupied by the target. If this hypothesis is correct, then target detectability should vary inversely with the number of stimuli which must be examined. The present experiment confirmed this expectation. A mathematical model of such a serial scanning process also predicts other, less obvious, effects on target detectability which were observed when the number of nontarget patterns was changed.     

The temporal course of visual pattern encoding: Effects of pattern goodness

Subjects typically display superior reproduction of good (redundant, symmetrical) visual patterns compared with poor ones. This pattern goodness effect could conceivably involve encoding processes, short-term memory processes, or response processes. The present experiments explored the time course of wholistic encoding of Garner dot patterns as a function of tachistoscopic exposure time, delay of backward masking, and post-mask shadowing. Within the specific framework of additive factors theory, Experiment I showed: (a) equal rates of encoding for all patterns since comparable slopes were obtained for the recall X processing time functions; and (b) superior absolute recall for good patterns since different intercepts were obtained. Experiment II demonstrated that when degree of encoding was initially equalized for all patterns, the rate of extraction of further information remained constant over available processing time and was unaffected by pattern goodness, slopes and intercepts for good versus poor patterns then being equal. Experiment III confirmed that, given some fixed duration of available processing time, information is abstracted at the same rate for all pattern regardless of the ratio stimulus display time to delay of mask onset. Experiment IV indicated that maintenance rehearsal normally occurs in the present experimental situation, and that very good patterns are somewhat less disrupted by shadowing over a three-second interval. While STM is thus implicated in the pattern goodness effect it does not follow that STM constitutes a complete explanation of the intercept differences reported here. Empirical evidence of response bias toward production of good patterns, however, was not found. It was shown that very good patterns are highly familiar and nameable, and proposed that they do consequently have an early encoding advantage.     

Gestalt similarity principle,difference thresholds and pattern discriminability

Perceptual grouping within a visual array has been studied as a function of the difference limen between elements composing the array. Two experiments are reported in which the array elements differed in size or in shape. Although there is a relationship between perceptual emergence and amount of difference between elements of the display as expected, there was clear evidence that above threshold differences between elements could not be used to predict the emergence of a pattern hidden in the visual array.     

The Charles Bonnet syndrome: 'phantom visual images'.

The Charles Bonnet syndrome is a condition in which individuals experience complex visual hallucinations without demonstrable psychopathology or disturbance of normal consciousness. An analysis of the sixty-four cases described in the literature reveals that the syndrome can occur at any age though it is more common in elderly people. Reduction in vision, due to peripheral eye pathology as well as pathology within the brain, is associated with the syndrome. Individual hallucinatory episodes can last from a few seconds to most of the day. Episodes can occur for periods of time ranging from days to years, with the hallucinations changing both in frequency and in complexity during this time. The hallucinations may be triggered or stopped by a number of factors which may exert their effect through a general arousal mechanism. People, animals, buildings, and scenery are reported most often. These images may appear static, moving in the visual field, or animated. Emotional reaction to the hallucinations may be positive or negative. Several theories have been proposed to account for the hallucinations. This paper highlights the sensory deprivation framework, with particular emphasis on the activity in the visual system after sensory loss that produces patterns of nerve impulses that, in turn, give rise to visual experience.     

Perceptual ambiguity and stability of reversible figures

In this work, the results of two experiments on ambiguous patterns are reported, which have been obtained by presenting a series of stimuli designed, in both cases, to reduce gradually the ambiguity of the patterns. Such reduction has been performed by respectively increasing or decreasing the amount of graphic details in the experiments. Data of both experiments show a lengthening of mean reversal time. The increase in the stability of one percept can be regarded as associated with the increasing difficulties encountered by an observer in organizing and restating the alternative "hypothesis" through the perceptual mechanisms. The loss of balance in the durations of percepts is discussed in terms of their different informational contents. Finally, in Exp. 1 an analysis is made to evaluate to what extent an addition of perceptual cues, designed to reinforce a three-dimensional interpretation of a pattern, can influence its figure-ground alternation.     

Patterns of Change in Fairness Perceptions During the Hiring Process

The justice literature, to date, shows that changes in fairness perceptions over time are consequential for job attitudes. However, few studies have been directed at explicating how fairness perceptions change over time or individual differences in patterns of change. The present research attempts to fill this gap by exploring patterns of temporal changes in fairness perceptions toward the selection process during a hiring process and potential determinants for such change. In a 3‐wave longitudinal study of the entire hiring process (pre‐, in‐, and post‐process) using a latent growth mixture modeling approach, different patterns of change in perceived fairness were modeled. In addition, the role of Big Five personality factors to predict classes of temporal patterns was examined. Results suggest that, on average, fairness perceptions declined in a non‐linear way over time, with high initial levels of fairness perception corresponding to a lower rate of decline, and vice versa. Four unique classes of applicants exhibiting different initial scores and growth of fairness perceptions were identified, which were predicted by the personality factors of extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for fairness theory and future research.     

Auditory coding of visual patterns for the blind

Recognition tasks of simple visual patterns have been used to assess an early visual--auditory sensory-substitution system, consisting of the coupling of a rough model of the human retina with an inverse model of the cochlea, by means of a pixel-frequency relationship. The potential advantage of the device, compared with previous ones, is to give the blind the ability to both localise and recognise visual patterns. Four evaluation sessions assessed the performance of twenty-four blindfolded sighted subjects using the device. Subjects had to recognise twenty-five visual patterns, one at a time, using a head-mounted small camera and interpreting the corresponding sounds given by the device. Half the subjects were trained by means of a correction feedback procedure during ten one-hour training sessions embedded in between the evaluation sessions. Results revealed extremely successful training effects. Performance of trained subjects significantly increased with practice compared with the untrained control group. The improvement was also observed for new patterns, demonstrating a learning-process generalisation. The negative correlation observed between scores and processing time showed that the subjects' response accuracy was related to their speed. In conclusion, simple pattern recognition is possible with a fairly natural vision-to-audition coding scheme, given the possibility for the subjects to have sensory--motor interactions while using the device.     

A laboratory-based procedure for measuring emotional expression from natural speech

Despite dramatic advances in the sophistication of tools for measuring prosodic and content channels of expression from natural speech, methodological issues have limited the simultaneous measurement of those channels for laboratory research. This is particularly unfortunate, considering the importance of emotional expression in daily living and how it can be disrupted in many psychological disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). The present study examined the Computerized assessment of Affect from Natural Speech (CANS), a laboratory-based procedure that was designed to measure both lexical and prosodic expression from natural speech across a range of evocative conditions. The verbal responses of 38 male and 31 female subjects were digitally recorded as they reacted to separate pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral stimuli. Lexical and prosodic expression variables significantly changed across these conditions, providing support for using the CANS in further laboratory research. The implications for understanding the interface between lexical and prosodic expressions are also discussed.     

Cognition and hearing aids

The perceptual information transmitted from a damaged cochlea to the brain is more poorly specified than information from an intact cochlea and requires more processing in working memory before language content can be decoded. In addition to making sounds audible, current hearing aids include several technologies that are intended to facilitate language understanding for persons with hearing impairment in challenging listening situations. These include directional microphones, noise reduction, and fast-acting amplitude compression systems. However, the processed signal itself may challenge listening to the extent that with specific types of technology, and in certain listening situations, individual differences in cognitive processing resources may determine listening success. Here, current and developing digital hearing aid signal processing schemes are reviewed in the light of individual working memory (WM) differences. It is argued that signal processing designed to improve speech understanding may have both positive and negative consequences, and that these may depend on individual WM capacity.     

Immediate serial recall of mixed-modality lists

Seven experiments are reported in which subjects were tested for immediate serial recall of mixed-modality lists. On mixed auditory-visual lists, there was an advantage for auditory items at all serial positions. This was due to both a facilitation of auditory items and an inhibition of visual items on mixed lists, as compared with single-modality lists. When presented on a list containing items read silently, recall of items that were silently mouthed by the subject demonstrated patterns similar to those found with auditory items. When presented on a list containing items read aloud, recall of mouthed items showed patterns similar to those found with silently read items. The auditory advantage on mixed lists was found even when the list items were acoustically similar or identical and was not reduced by midlist auditory suffixes. The results suggest that modality differences in recall of mixed-modality lists are based on information different from that responsible for modality differences in recall of single-modality lists.     

大学生时间管理倾向的测量及与文化取向的关系

依据时间管理的相关理论,参照国内外已有的相关问卷和量表,提出时间管理问卷的结构。对872份有效数据进行探索性和验证性因素分析,同时考察了价值观与时间管理的关系。研究结果表明：（1）大学生时间管理倾向问卷包括6个因子：即规划性、拖延性、时间透视性、自觉控制性、混乱倾向性和抗压性;（2）问卷的内部一致性信度、分半信度和重测信度均较高,问卷具有良好的信效度;（3）价值观中的垂直个人主义对时间管理倾向中的计划性、自觉控制性和混乱倾向性有显著预测作用;价值观中的垂直集体主义对时间透视和抗压力有显著的正向预测作用。     

Eating behavior in obese BED, obese non-BED, and non-obese control participants: A naturalistic study

Laboratory studies have shown considerable differences between the eating behavior, particularly binge eating behavior, of participants with and without binge eating disorder (BED). However, these findings were not replicated in two field experiments employing ecological momentary assessment (EMA) in which obese BED and obese non-BED participants reported comparable binge eating behavior. In the current study, we examined differences in binge eating with an innovative assessment scheme employing both EMA and a standardized computer-based dietary recall program to avoid some of the limitations of past laboratory and field research. Obese BED, obese non-BED, and non-obese control participants reported significant differences in eating patterns, loss of control, overeating, and binge eating behavior. Of particular importance was the finding that BED participants engaged in more overeating and more binge eating episodes than non-BED participants. These findings suggest that the use of EMA in combination with dietary recall may be a relatively objective and useful approach to assessing binge eating behavior. The findings further suggest that individuals with BED are observably different from those without the disorder, which may have implications for eating disorder diagnoses in DSM-V.     

Ecology of depression in late childhood and early adolescence: a profile of daily states and activities

This study investigated daily states and time use patterns associated with depression. Four hundred eighty-three 5th to 9th graders reported on their experience when signalled by pagers at random times. Depressed youth reported more negative affect and social emotions, lower psychological investment, lower energy, and greater variability in affect. These differences were weaker for 5th and 6th graders, suggesting that self-reported feeling states are a poor indicator of depression prior to adolescence. No differences were found in the daily activities of depressed youths nor in the amount of time spent alone, but depressed youths experienced other people as less friendly and more often reported wanting to be alone, especially when with their families. They also spent less time in public places and more time in their bedrooms. Finally, depressed boys, but not girls, spent much less time with friends, particularly of the same sex, suggesting that social isolation is more strongly associated with depression for boys.