Age and Gender Role Conflict: A Cross-Sectional Study of Australian Men

A total of 221 educated middle-class Australian males across three age groups (18–24, 36–45, and 60-plus years), responded to O'Neil et al.'s Gender Role Conflict Scales and a set of measures for psychological well-being. A MANCOVA design, with psychological well-being as the covariate, found significant age differences on two gender-role conflict scales. Results suggest that certain conflicts in a man's life to do with ambition, career, and family may be seen as developmentally functional rather than dysfunctional. No age differences were found on the Gender Role Conflict variables for emotional expressiveness and intimacy between males. These two variables are discussed as a function of mood rather than indices of dysfunction.     

Patterns of Gender Role Conflict and Strain: Sexism and Fear of Femininity in Men's Lives

This article describes men's gender role conflict and strain that emanate from rigid gender socialization. The author proposes 10 assumptions about how gender role socialization and sexism can be psychologically dysfunctional for both men and women. The masculine mystique and value system and men's fear of femininity produce six patterns of gender role conflict and strain in men's lives. These patterns are discussed and their effects on men's psychological and physical well being are presented. Four recommendations for counselors and psychologists are offered to increase sensitivity to gender role conflict and decrease the emotional pain in people's lives caused by sexism and restrictive gender role socialization.     

A Gender Role Workshop Focused on Sexism,Gender Role Conflict,and the Gender Role Journey

A 6-day gender role workshop for adult men and women, using the phases of the gender role journey, is presented. The workshop's curriculum and process are described, including its assumptions, norms, and media. Movie clips, music, music videos, and academic content were used to promote participants' learning in both the cognitive and affective domains. Systematic follow-up evaluations of participants ( N =84) in three separate workshops are reported using Likert scaled questions. These evaluations assessed participants' personal learning, emotional reactions, and the workshop's overall impact over l-month and 1-and 2-year follow-up periods. Results indicate that participants were affected personally and professionally over the various time periods.     

A Study of Jewish Identity Development and Its Relationship to Self-Esteem

Jewish college age students and adults completed measures of Jewish identity as well as self-esteem to determine whether Jews adhere to Atkinson et al. (1979) minority identity model, particularly as regards self-esteem. Participants were found to have diminished rather than enhanced self-esteem in the Resistance-Immersion stage. Diplomate in the American Association of Pastoral Counselors and an Approved Supervisor in the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy. He is a Postdoctoral Fellow in the Clinical Psychology Program of the University of Connecticut.     

大学生社会支持与幸福感:社交自尊的中介作用

采用领悟社会支持量表、德克萨斯社会行为问卷和综合幸福感问卷对330位大学生进行调查,建立社会支持、社交自尊和幸福感的结构方程,考察社交自尊在社会支持与幸福感之间的中介作用。结果发现:(1)大学生社会支持对社交自尊和主观幸福感、心理幸福感都有显著的正向预测作用;(2)大学生社交自尊对主观幸福感和心理幸福感均具有显著的正向预测作用;(3)社交自尊在社会支持和主观幸福感、心理幸福感之间起到部分中介的作用,即社会支持直接对主观幸福感、心理幸福感产生影响,也可通过社交自尊间接影响主观幸福感、心理幸福感。     

Sports Participation and Self-Esteem: Variations as a Function of Gender and Gender Role Orientation

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of gender, sports participation, and gender orientation in predicting individuals' domain-specific and global self-esteem. A sample of 100 Grade 11 students completed measures of self-perception, body image, gender orientation, and sports participation. The results showed that although boys reported greater satisfaction with weight and appearance, there were no gender differences in general self-worth. In addition, more feminine individuals who participated in competitive sports reported lower levels of perceived athletic competence and global self-worth, but reported higher self-esteem when they participated in more noncompetitive sports. Although sports participation does predict self-esteem, participants' gender orientation and the type of sports in which they participate are moderating factors.     

The Relationship between Social Dominance Orientation and Gender: The Mediating Role of Social Values

Invariance hypothesis posits that, across cultures and contexts, men are higher in SDO than women. Social Dominance Theory (SDT) suggests that this difference is biologically determined and resulting from the differences in reproductive strategies between sexes. In this study we tested the hypothesis that values can explain gender–SDO differences. SDT suggests that SDO mediates gender differences in values. The contrasting hypothesis suggests that gender–SDO differences are mediated by values. Using SEM with a sample of Italian University students (N = 162, 80 men), the results provided strong support for the hypothesis of a mediation effect of values. Indeed, when controlling for values, gender difference in SDO disappear. Very similar findings were obtained for both GBD and OEQ. Results are discussed.     

The Role of Self-Esteem and Social Influences in Aggressive Reactions to Interactional Injustice

Two experiments were conducted to examine the potential negative consequences an organization may face in response to perceptions of interactional injustice. Study 1 found that one potentially negative reaction to perceived injustice can be intended retaliation. In addition, study 1 found that individuals with high self-esteem are most likely to respond negatively to a perceived injustice by indicating that they plan to engage in a retaliatory response. Study 2 explored the effects of one’s situation on intended retaliation behavior. The results again indicate that perceptions of interactional injustice are strongly related to intended retaliation behavior. In addition, the study demonstrates that one’s group can have a significant influence on the perceptions of injustice and one’s subsequent reactions to these injustices.     

Unemployment,Self-Esteem,and Depression: A Social Comparison Theory Approach

A social comparison theory approach to the relation between unemployment, self-esteem, and depression was tested using a cross-sectional questionnaire design (N = 88). Personal attributes were used as the domain of comparison, and four types of comparisons-intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup-were operationalized. Employment status affected the salience of intrapersonal comparisons. Comparisons with the past self were highly predictive of psychological distress among unemployed respondents, whereas comparisons with the ideal self predicted distress among the employed. Individual-level and group-level social comparisons had different associations with the dependent measures for unemployed respondents. Intrapersonal and interpersonal comparisons were significantly related to depression and self-esteem scores, whereas intragroup and intergroup comparisons were related only to self-esteem. Social comparisons with unemployed people were related to reduced depression levels among employed respondents. Results also showed that unemployed people had more negative social comparison scores relative to their employed counterparts. Results are discussed in terms of recent developments in social comparison theory. Suggestions for future research are outlined.     

Role of Gender in Dual-Tasking Timed Up and Go Tests: A Cross-Sectional Study

Gender plays a role in cognitive performance. Yet the selection of a secondary task, an important paradigm in studies of posture control, has not considered gender as a variable. We explored whether different cognitive tasks differentially influence performance during the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test in men and women. Twenty young adults performed five cognitive tasks while seated and during the TUG test. Men exhibited a slower normalized cadence than women. When seated, women recalled more items than men and men were more accurate in mental calculation task. There were no changes in spatiotemporal measures. We conclude that gender did not play a major role in motor-cognitive interference during dual task TUG test.     

Confirming Gender Stereotypes: A Social Role Perspective

In this research we examined whether emotional vulnerability leads women and men to confirm gender stereotypes. Emotional vulnerability is a state where one is open to having one's feelings hurt or to experiencing rejection. Drawing on the tenets of social role theory and research related to normative expectations, we propose that emotional vulnerability leads to stereotype confirmation, as normative expectations are less risky and easier to enact than nonnormative behavior. Fifty-nine dating couples were randomly assigned to a high emotional vulnerability or low emotional vulnerability discussion with their partners. When the degree of emotional vulnerability was high men confirmed gender-stereotypes. Women's behavior, on the other hand, was not significantly affected by condition. We discuss these findings in terms of the domain in which gender-typed behaviors occur and the social pressures to act in accordance with gender norms.     

Personal Inadequacy and Intimacy Predictors of Men's Hostility Toward Women

In this study we examined social/personality and intimacy predictors of men's hostility toward women (HTW). The study was framed in terms of a projection model that suggests that men's feelings of inadequacy contribute to hostility toward women. The sample consisted of 172 college men. The strongest attitudinal predictors were measures of locus of control. These data support the feminist analysis of sexual violence as an issue of power and lend support to the proposed projection model in terms of perceived powerlessness. In addition, based on the projection model, intimacy predictors for best male friend and female romantic partner were examined. The strongest correlate of men's HTW was intellectual intimacy, which conceptually is more related to the idea of an egalitarian relationship than other aspects of intimacy and may be most inhibited in men who are hostile toward women's intimate relationships.     

The Role of Self-Esteem and Social Support in the Relationship between Extraversion and Happiness: a Serial Mediation Model

Studies have documented that self-esteem and social support mediate the relationship between extroversion and happiness. Most of the studies, however, were conducted in a piecemeal fashion and have rarely evaluated the two mediators simultaneously. It is not clear whether the two mediating effects are equally important or one is greater than the other. Moreover, little attention has been given to the indirect effect of extraversion on happiness through self-esteem then social support (i.e., serial mediating effect). The present study attempts to bridge these gaps by proposing and testing a path model illustrating the mediating effects of self-esteem and social support on the linkage of extraversion and happiness. Undergraduate students (N = 311) completed measures of extroversion, social support, self-esteem, and happiness. Results showed that extraversion, self-esteem, and social support were significantly associated with happiness. As predicted, both self-esteem and social support mediated the relationship between extraversion and happiness, respectively. Results also supported the hypothesized serial mediating effect. In other words, extroverts tend to have high self-esteem which increases supports they receive from friends and family. The high social support, in turn, enhances happiness. Additionally, comparisons among the three indirect effects indicated that the effect of self-esteem was significantly greater than the other two effects. The findings not only shed light on the independent and accumulative mediating effects of self-esteem and social support, but also provide new insight into the difference in strength of the indirect effects.     

Gender Roles and Self-Esteem: A Consideration of Environmental Factors

Much empirical research has examined the psychological well-being of individuals with varying gender role orientations. This research has typically shown masculinity to be a strong correlate of self-esteem and femininity to be relatively unrelated to self-esteem. This research has often failed to consider the relative environmental influences impacting this process. This study examines the relationships of masculinity and femininity to self-esteem and environmental presses for each of these sets of behavioral characteristics. Results indicate a stronger press for masculine characteristics than feminine characteristics. The person-environment interaction suggests that a masculine environment may place women who are low in masculinity at particular risk for low self-esteem. Implications for both research and practice are discussed.     

性别对工作→家庭冲突的影响机制:基于社会角色理论的实证分析

采用问卷调查法,对来自上海地区的261名企业管理者进行调查,探讨了性别与组织分割供给、工作中心度及工作→家庭冲突的关系。结果表明:⑴性别对工作→家庭冲突的预测作用显著,男性比女性经历的工作→家庭冲突更多;⑵组织分割供给和工作中心度在性别与工作→家庭冲突之间的中介效应均显著。相比女性而言,男性员工因获得的组织分割供给较少且其自身的工作中心度较高,导致其经历的工作→家庭冲突更多。     

Social Role Theory and the Perceived Gender Role Orientation of Athletes

In this research we examined the influence of athletic roles upon the perceived gender role orientations of male and female athletes. Participants were 148 students who read a bogus newspaper article that described either a male or female athlete who had successfully competed in an athletic event. The type of sport (football, basketball, and cheerleading) was manipulated. Female football players and basketball players were perceived as higher in agency than female cheerleaders. Male cheerleaders were perceived as higher in communality than male football players and male basketball players. Participants made external attributions concerning the motivations of athletes who competed in gender traditional sports. They made internal attributions concerning the motivations of athletes who competed in gender nontraditional sports. These findings are examined in relation to social role theory.     

Predictors of General Self-Efficacy and Self-Esteem in Occupational Therapy Students: A Cross-Sectional Study

A national survey reported college students showed higher risk of mental health problems than the general population. Using self-efficacy and self-esteem as indicators of mental health, this study explores sociodemographic, relational, educational, and work factors associated with these outcomes. A sample of 148 occupational therapy students in Norway participated, and data were analyzed with multiple linear regression. Factors associated with positive self-efficacy and self-esteem were higher general satisfaction with the education program, amount of time spent on self-study, and being male. Implications are attention toward female students' self-perceptions, improving the learning environment, and encouraging students to do more self-study.     

Gender Role Ideology as a Moderator of the Relationship between Social Power Tactics and Marital Satisfaction

The study examined whether the Power Interaction Model is applicable for explaining the choice of power tactics in conflict situations among Israeli married couples. In addition, gender role ideology was tested as a moderator of the relationship between power usage and marital satisfaction. Seventy-eight couples reported on self usage and spouse’s usage of power tactic behaviors during conflicts and completed questionnaires assessing marital satisfaction, gender role ideology (traditional, liberal) and demographics. Findings indicated greater agreement within couples for harsh rather than for soft tactic preference. As expected, preference for harsh tactics was associated with lower marital satisfaction yet gender role ideology moderated this association. The role of conflict and power usage in traditional and liberal families was addressed.