Evaluation of quantitative theories of timing

Scalar timing theory is a clear, complete, modular, and precise theory of timing that explains much of the data from many timing procedures, but not all of the data from all of the procedures. The multiple-time-scale theory of timing provides an alternative representation of time that has not yet been tested with respect to its fit to timing data.     

Thought translation, tennis and Turing tests in the vegetative state

Brain damage can cause massive changes in consciousness levels. From a clinical and ethical point of view it is desirable to assess the level of residual consciousness in unresponsive patients. However, no direct measure of consciousness exists, so we run into the philosophical problem of other minds. Neurologists often make implicit use of a Turing test-like procedure in an attempt to gain access to damaged minds, by monitoring and interpreting neurobehavioral responses. New brain imaging techniques are now being developed that permit communication with unresponsive patients, using their brain signals as carriers of messages relating to their mental states.     

Timing at the Start of Associative Learning

Some theories of associative learning imply that time plays a fundamental role in the acquisition process. Consistent with these theories, this paper presents evidence that the time from the onset of a conditioned stimulus (CS) until presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (US) is learned very rapidly at the start of training. We report two autoshaping studies and a study on aversive conditioning in goldfish in which we examine timing at the start of conditioning. We also review data from a number of other conditioning preparations, including fear-potentiated startle, appetitive conditioning in rats, and eyeblink conditioning in rabbits, that report conditioned response (CR) timing early in training. Acquisition speed and the very first expressions of conditioned responding often show sensitivity to the time of US presentation. In instances where temporal control is slowly expressed, it is likely due to performance factors, not to slow learning about time. In fact, the learning about time may be a necessary condition for associative learning.     

Comparison of variance and covariance patterns in parallel and serial theories of timing.

Parallel and serial timing processes are analyzed for their account of the dynamics of intertrial responding in the peak procedure. A strictly serial model, such as the behavioral theory of timing (Killeen & Fetterman, 1988), does not fit the dynamic correlation pattern in the location and duration of the middle high-rate responding portion of peak trials. In contrast, the parallel scalar expectancy theory model, with a sample for memory and threshold, does fit this pattern. A modification of the serial model is presented that also accommodates the within-trial covariance pattern. The modification, which is formally equivalent to a model for human tapping (Wing & Kristofferson, 1973), entails the addition of concurrent processes operating in parallel with serial timing.     

THE BEHAVIORAL THEORY OF TIMING: TRANSITION ANALYSES

Gibbon and Church (1990, 1992) have recently confirmed an important, parameter-free prediction of the behavioral theory of timing (Killeen & Fetterman, 1988): The times of exiting from a bout of activity are positively correlated with the times of entrance to it. The correlations were slightly less than predicted, however, and the correlations between the start of an activity and the time spent engaged in that activity were negative, rather than zero. We adapted their serial model as an augmented (one-parameter) version of the behavioral theory, positing a lag between the receipt of a pulse from the pacemaker and transition into the next class of responses. The augmented version of the behavioral theory further improved the correspondence between the theory and the correlational data reported by Gibbon and Church. It also accounts for previously unpublished data from our laboratory derived from a new timing technique, the “peak choice” procedure. We show that the measured variance of movement times from one key to another closely approximates the estimated variance of transition times recovered from fits of the augmented model to the data. Such correspondence both attests to the correct identification of this source of variance and suggests ways to remove it, both from behavior and from our models of behavior.     

内隐序列学习意识的理论、测量和影响因素

内隐序列学习意识理论有二分和渐进两种观点。意识的主观和客观行为测量来源于二分理论, 其研究却产生了渐进理论; 电生理和脑成像测量则存在严重的二分偏向。影响意识的三因素--反应刺激间隔(RSI)、人格开放性和新异刺激都是意识产生的原因, 其有关研究各自支持或反对两种意识理论, 进一步探索可能孕育出新的意识理论。鉴于二分理论无法解释中间意识, 反之渐进理论无法解释意识与无意识的脑区分离, 本文提出双系统渐进理论或可统合两者, 且可能促使大脑网络技术探索意识产生机制的多样性和竞争性等新研究的产生。此外, 所有测量方式的敏感性等级尚待确定, 影响意识三因素的交互作用也值得探索。     

迫选规则体验法: 检验规范性和描述性风险决策理论的新尝试

为寻求检验规范性和描述性风险决策理论的通用标准, 本研究以期望价值理论和齐当别抉择模型为例, 探讨了“迫选规则体验法”的适用性。被试为120名大学生, 实验任务为要求被试分别完成自主决策(采用未知规则: 真规则)和规则迫选决策(遵循给定规则: 假规则)任务, 并对决策后的情感和认可程度进行评定。研究发现: (1) 被试在自主决策条件下比在规则迫选条件下体验到的正性情感程度更强, 负性情感的程度更弱; (2) 被试在自主决策与规则迫选决策两种条件下做出的相同决策越多, 该被试对迫选规则更加认可并体验到的正性情感程度越强, 负性情感的程度越弱; (3) 与期望价值理论相比, 齐当别抉择模型可能符合更多决策者的实际决策规则。这些结果表明, 作为检验规范性和描述性风险决策理论的新尝试, 迫选规则体验法可能更有助于回答“决策者实际采用的决策规则是什么”的问题。     

Biasing the pacemaker in the behavioral theory of timing

In the behavioral theory of timing, pacemaker rate is determined by overall rate of reinforcement. A two-alternative free-operant psychophysical procedure was employed to investigate whether pacemaker period was also sensitive to the differential rate of reinforcement. Responding on a left key during the first 25 s and on a right key during the second 25 s of a 50-s trial was reinforced at variable intervals, and variable-interval schedule values during the two halves of the trials were varied systematically. Responding on the right key during the first 25 s and on the left key during the second 25 s was not reinforced. Estimates of pacemaker period were derived from fits of a function predicted by the behavioral theory of timing to right-key response proportions in consecutive 5-s bins of the 50-s trial. Estimates of pacemaker period were shortest when the differential reinforcer rate most strongly favored right-key responses, and were longest when the differential reinforcer rate most strongly favored left-key responses. The results were consistent with the conclusion that pacemaker rate is influenced by relative reinforcer rate.     

A tuned-trace theory of interval-timing dynamics

Animals on interval schedules of reinforcement can rapidly adjust a temporal dependent variable, such as wait time, to changes in the prevailing interreinforcement interval. We describe data on the effects of impulse, step, sine-cyclic, and variable-interval schedules and show that they can be explained by a tuned-trace timing model with a one-back threshold-setting rule. The model can also explain steady-state timing properties such as proportional and Weber law timing and the effects of reinforcement magnitude. The model assumes that food reinforcers and other time markers have a decaying effect (trace) with properties that can be derived from the rate-sensitive property of habituation (the multiple-time-scale model). In timing experiments, response threshold is determined by the trace value at the time of the most recent reinforcement. The model provides a partial account for the learning of multiple intervals, but does not account for scalloping and other postpause features of responding on interval schedules and has some problems with square-wave schedules.     

控制相关理论述评

在控制感与实际控制行为的区分基础上,回顾了与控制相关的理论,分析了各理论的特点和新近的研究;指出各种控制理论都是从不同的侧面研究控制,自成体系,缺乏沟通;控制概念模糊,理论间重叠严重,尚无一个理论能很好的将它们整合;存在的问题直接导致了控制测评的混乱,阻碍了进一步的分析研究;理清控制感与真实控制之间的关系,对进一步改进和标准化控制感评估有重要意义。     

跨通道情境下双任务范式与计时中断范式中的效应比较*

为了探讨跨通道情境下同一种刺激序列中双任务范式与计时中断范式中位置效应和间断效应的异同,研究设计了实验1和实验2。实验1以2500 ms和4500 ms为目标时距,采用相同的刺激序列(视觉呈现时距信号,听觉呈现干扰信号或中断信号),要求3组被试分别在控制、干扰及中断条件下完成相应任务,结果发现不管2500 ms或4500 ms时,中断条件较干扰条件和控制条件的间断效应更明显;同时发现在2500 ms时,不管控制、干扰还是中断条件下均发现了位置效应,而4500 ms时仅在中断条件下出现了位置效应,这可能由于实验1的控制及干扰任务中的4500 ms时的“晚”位置的时间确定性较高,以致掩盖了位置效应。为了降低“晚”位置出现的确定性,更好地对比两种范式中的效应,实验2将目标时距设置为1500 ms和2500 ms,结果发现在1500 ms或2500 ms时,不管控制、干扰还是中断条件下均发现了位置效应,且中断条件较干扰条件和控制条件下间断效应更明显。上述结果意味着跨通道情境下同一种刺激序列中双任务范式与计时中断范式中位置效应是否相同局限在一定时间范畴;计时中断范式中的中断效应对计时的消弱较双任务范式干扰效应更显著。     

学习焦虑、学习态度和投入动机与学业成绩关系的研究——关于《心理统计学》学习经验的调查

本研究对122名本科生《心理统计学》课程的学习经验进行调查,其结果为:(1)在该课程的学习经验和考试成绩上男、女生差异显著,它表现在学习态度层面的有用性和成就态度,投入动机层面的自我投入上女生均优于男生;研究还发现,考分低则焦虑水平较高;(2)学习焦虑、学习态度、投入动机与考试成绩之间有显著相关,其中学习焦虑与成绩呈负相关,学习态度、投入动机与成绩呈正相关;(3)学习焦虑,学习态度和投入动机均影响学习成绩。学习成绩不仅受到学习焦虑和投入动机的直接影响,还受到学习态度等因素的间接影响。     

短时距标量计时模型的建构研究

采用预期式研究范式,创造性地使用单任务研究程序,从心理物理学的视角,通过六个实验系统地考查了影响被试短时距(6s至24s)估计的标量特性和物理、心理和生理的信息源因素.深入探讨了注意、激活、间断和间断期望效应因素对时间估计行为的影响及时序信息的动态加工过程.在此基础上,包含时钟、累加、记忆和比较四个动态加工过程的短时距标量计时模型得以建构.     

The behavioral theory of timing: Reinforcer rate determines pacemaker rate

In the behavioral theory of timing, pulses from a hypothetical Poisson pacemaker produce transitions between states that are correlated with adjunctive behavior. The adjunctive behavior serves as a discriminative stimulus for temporal discriminations. The present experiments tested the assumption that the average interpulse time of the pacemaker is proportional to interreinforcer interval. Responses on a left key were reinforced at variable intervals for the first 25 s since the beginning of a 50-s trial, and right-key responses were reinforced at variable intervals during the second 25 s. Psychometric functions relating proportion of right-key responses to time since trial onset, in 5-s intervals across the 50-s trial, were sigmoidal in form. Average interpulse times derived by fitting quantitative predictions from the behavioral theory of timing to obtained psychometric functions decreased when the interreinforcer interval was decreased and increased when the interreinforcer interval was increased, as predicted by the theory. In a second experiment, average interpulse times estimated from trials without reinforcement followed global changes in interreinforcer interval, as predicted by the theory. Changes in temporal discrimination as a function of interreinforcer interval were therefore not influenced by the discrimination of reinforcer occurrence. The present data support the assumption of the behavioral theory of timing that interpulse time is determined by interreinforcer interval.     

Stroop 稀释效应的研究及其理论解释

Stroop稀释效应是指在Stroop效应的色词-色块范式中若增加无关词作为分心刺激,Stroop效应将被大大削弱的现象。文章回顾了Stroop稀释效应的相关研究及理论解释,并对这些理论进行了分析和比较。最后,对未来的研究趋势作了展望。     

意义理论

Research into logical syntax provides us the knowledge of the structure of sentences, while logical semantics provides a window into uncovering the truth of sentences. Therefore, it is natural to make sentences and truth the central concern when one deals with the theory of meaning logically. Although their theories of meaning differ greatly, both Michael Dummett’s theory and Donald Davidson’s theory are concerned with sentences and truth and developed in terms of truth. Logical theories and methods first introduced by G. Frege underwent great developments during the past century and have played an important role in expanding these two scholars’ theories of meaning. Translated by Ma Minghui from Zhexue Yanjiu 哲学研究 (Philosophical Research), 2006, (7): 53–61     

国外工作倦怠观的理论探索

目前对工作倦怠的研究主要从社会——文化——历史、生态学、精神分析、行为主义、存在主义等视角来展开的,它们虽各有侧重,但概括来说,这些研究都把重心放在倦息发生的原因、各种症状及其过程的研究上,而对其发生的内在的生理、心理机制涉及甚少,在未来的研究中,应逐步加强这方面的探索。     

内隐学习在第二语言语音学习中的作用

本研究以大学生为被试,用符合德语读音规则的人造无意义单词(含4~5个音素)为刺激材料,采用强分离程序———匹配和编辑,并增设时间变量,比较了在先匹配后编辑,先编辑后匹配,只匹配,只编辑4种不同内隐、外显学习方式下被试对语音规则的掌握。结果表明,语音学习中存在内隐学习的优势效应,内隐与外显结合的学习方式最好。此外,实验证实了语音的内隐学习也存在长时效应。     

国外关于情绪与记忆的理论与实验研究综述

文章简要介绍了国外有关情绪与记忆的相关理沦,以及与之有关的实验研究。近年来,情绪对于人类理性认知活动的建设作用正逐步受到人们的重视,尤其是情绪对记忆影响的研究一度成为热点,有关情绪与记忆的理论相继产生。这里主要介绍四个有关情绪与记忆的理论。