The Rorschach and MMPI: toward a more scientifically differentiated understanding of cross-method assessment

Reasons for Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and Rorschach disagreement at the nomothetic level are explored. Building on an understanding of measurement distinctions from other sciences, it is proposed that the Rorschach and MMPI procedures are differentially sensitive to unique manifestations of personality. By necessity, each method is then also recognized as having a limited scope of effectiveness, such that neither can provide a complete picture of personality in its full complexity. Drawing on the more extensive self-report literature, the idiosyncracies and limited scope of the self-report method are documented. Finally, an ideographically rooted, cross-method, configural model is proposed for validation research in personality assessment. Several examples consistent with this approach are drawn from the assessment literature and discussed.     

Theoretical structure of adolescent alienation: a multigroup confirmatory factor analysis

This study examined the construct validity of adolescent alienation using second-order confirmatory factor analysis of the five dimensions conceptualized by Seeman (1959). Analysis was based on data from 275 high school students aged 14 to 18. The hypothesized multidimensionality of the construct was confirmed for both boys and girls using a second-order factor labeled alienation. Central dimensions of alienation as a latent construct were self-estrangement and powerlessness. Social isolation, meaninglessness, and especially normlessness were poorly explained by the second-order factor, suggesting that these dimensions entail enough specificity to be considered separately. A different theoretical model relating these dimensions is suggested and discussed.     

The Hopelessness Scale: a factor analysis

A confirmatory factor analysis of the Beck Hopelessness Scale in a sample of 340 Italian students did not support the 3-factor model reported for previous samples of psychiatric patients. A follow-up principal axis factor analysis yielded two interpretable correlated factors, suggesting that the structure of the scale may differ across clinical and nonclinical groups and as a function of nationality.     

Testing a simple structure hypothesis in factor analysis

It is assumed that the investigator has set up a simple structure hypothesis in the sense that he has specified the zero loadings of the factor matrix. The maximum-likelihood method is used to estimate the factor matrix and the factor correlation matrix directly without the use of rotation methods, and the likelihood-ratio technique is used to test the simple structure hypothesis. Numerical examples are presented.The work was supported by a grant (NSF-GB 1985) from the National Science Foundation to Educational Testing Service. Reproduction in whole or in part for any purpose of the United States Government is permitted.The work was carried out when the author was Visiting Research Statistician at Educational Testing Service. The author wishes to thank Dr. Frederic M. Lord for many helpful suggestions throughout the course of this study.     

The objective definition of simple structure in linear factor analysis

Requirements for an objective definition of simple structure are investigated and a number of proposed objective criteria are evaluated. A distinction is drawn between exploratory factorial studies and confirmatory factorial studies, with the conclusion drawn that objective definition of simple structure depends on study design as well as on objective criteria. A proposed definition of simple structure is described in terms of linear constellations. This definition lacks only a statistical test to compare with possible chance results. A computational procedure is also described for searching for linear constellations. This procedure is very laborious and might best be accomplished on high-speed automatic computers. There is no guarantee that the procedure will find all linear constellations, but it probably would yield satisfactory results for well-designed studies.     

The orthogonal approximation of an oblique structure in factor analysis

A procedure is derived for obtaining an orthogonal transformation which most nearly transforms one given matrix into another given matrix, according to some least-squares criterion of fit. From this procedure, three analytic methods are derived for obtaining an orthogonal factor matrix which closely approximates a given oblique factor matrix. The case is considered of approximating a specified subset of oblique vectors by orthogonal vectors.Part of this research was carried out while the author was a psychometric fellow at the Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey.     

The structure of death anxiety: a factor analytic study.

University students in Canada (n = 255) and Northern Ireland (n = 315), graduate nursing students (n = 124), funeral service students (n = 79), and members of the Unitarian Fellowship (n = 83) completed Templer's Death Anxiety Scale (DAS). The responses of each group were subjected to principal components factor analysis using varimax rotational procedures and the factor scores derived from this analysis were then contrasted using multiple discriminant function analysis. Results indicated that there was more commonality than uniqueness in the factor patterns for these groups. Four common death anxiety patterns were classified as follows: (a) cognitive-affective concerns; (b) concern about physical alterations; (c) concern about the passage of time; and (d) concern about stressors and pain. These factors are consistent with and extend the views expressed in previous research (i.e., Pandy, 1974-75; Pandy & Templer, 1972.     

Business owner-managers' descriptions of entrepreneurship: A content analysis

Abstract

Entrepreneurship is one of the most researched topics in business research. Findings have been mixed regarding the traits of entrepreneurs, and interest has grown in examining the behavioral aspects and business operations elements necessary for effective entrepreneurship, branching out from the focus on personality traits that has dominated the literature. We explored the area of entrepreneurship with the goal of developing a useful framework for viewing this domain. Content analysis was used to build the framework from business owner-managers' observations of entrepreneurial effectiveness. The construct categories and the overall dimensions and their relationships to entrepreneurship are reported. The result is the beginning of a process to describe an entrepreneurship system. Suggestions for future research and the continuation of entrepreneurship model development are offered.     

The structure of temperament in preschoolers: a two-stage factor analytic approach

The structure of temperament traits in young children has been the subject of extensive debate, with separate models proposing different trait dimensions. This research has relied almost exclusively on parent-report measures. The present study used an alternative approach, a laboratory observational measure, to explore the structure of temperament in preschoolers. A 2-stage factor analytic approach, exploratory factor analyses (n = 274) followed by confirmatory factor analyses (n = 276), was used. We retrieved an adequately fitting model that consisted of 5 dimensions: Sociability, Positive Affect/Interest, Dysphoria, Fear/Inhibition, and Constraint versus Impulsivity. This solution overlaps with, but is also distinct from, the major models derived from parent-report measures.     

The Disgust Scale: item analysis, factor structure, and suggestions for refinement

In the 4 studies presented (N = 1,939), a converging set of analyses was conducted to evaluate the item adequacy, factor structure, reliability, and validity of the Disgust Scale (DS; J. Haidt, C. McCauley, & P. Rozin, 1994). The results suggest that 7 items (i.e., Items 2, 7, 8, 21, 23, 24, and 25) should be considered for removal from the DS. Secondary to removing the items, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the DS taps 3 dimensions of disgust: Core Disgust, Animal Reminder Disgust, and Contamination-Based Disgust. Women scored higher than men on the 3 disgust dimensions. Structural modeling provided support for the specificity of the 3-factor model, as Core Disgust and Contamination-Based Disgust were significantly predictive of obsessive- compulsive disorder (OCD) concerns, whereas Animal Reminder Disgust was not. Results from a clinical sample indicated that patients with OCD washing concerns scored significantly higher than patients with OCD without washing concerns on both Core Disgust and Contamination-Based Disgust, but not on Animal Reminder Disgust. These findings are discussed in the context of the refinement of the DS to promote a more psychometrically sound assessment of disgust sensitivity.     

The structure of the Beck Hopelessness Scale: A confirmatory factor analysis in UK students

The aim of this paper was to confirm the factor structure of the 20-item Beck Hopelessness Scale in a non-clinical population. Previous research has highlighted a lack of clarity in its construct validity with regards to this population.Based on previous factor analytic findings from both clinical and non-clinical studies, 13 separate confirmatory factor models were specified and estimated using LISREL 8.72 to test the one, two and three-factor models.Psychology and medical students at Queen’s University, Belfast (n = 581) completed both the BHS and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI).All models showed reasonable fit, but only one, a four-item single-factor model demonstrated a non-significant chi-squared statistic. These four items can be used to derive a Short-Form BHS (SBHS) in which increasing scores (0-4) corresponded with increasing scores in the BDI. The four items were also drawn from all three of Beck’s proposed triad, and included both positively and negatively scored items.This study in a UK undergraduate non-clinical population suggests that the BHS best measures a one-factor model of hopelessness. It appears that a shorter four-item scale can also measure this one-factor model.     

Intuitive identification of infant vocal sounds by parents

Parents are remarkably accurate observers of their infants’‘canonical babbling’, the production of well‐formed syllables. With very little training, many parents across a wide range of socioeconomic status make flawless judgments of canonical stage onset. The results of concordance studies between parental and trained‐observer judgments support the idea that recognition of canonical babbling may be intuitive. Without instruction, parents identify the onset of canonical babbling when it occurs, and thereafter they begin to interpret sounds produced by children in ways that may encourage word learning. The fact that parents can provide accurate information about stage of vocal development, along with the fact that late onset of canonical babbling has been shown to be an extremely important indicator of risk for hearing loss and language‐related disabilities, suggests the possibility of using a brief interview to identify infants at risk.     

Model specification search using a genetic algorithm with factor reordering for a simple structure factor analysis model

Abstract:  Many techniques for automated model specification search based on numerical indices have been proposed, but no single decisive method has yet been determined. In the present article, the performance and features of the model specification search method using a genetic algorithm (GA) were verified. A GA is a robust and simple metaheuristic algorithm with great searching power. While there has already been some research applying metaheuristics to the model fitting task, we focus here on the search for a simple structure factor analysis model and propose a customized algorithm for dealing with certain problems specific to that situation. First, implementation of model specification search using a GA with factor reordering for a simple structure factor analysis is proposed. Then, through a simulation study using generated data with a known true structure and through example analysis using real data, the effectiveness and applicability of the proposed method were demonstrated.     

The Disability Factor Scale--General: second-order factor structure

This study examined the second-order factor structure of Siller's (1969) Disability Factor Scale--General. Factor analysis of the seven attitudinal factors toward disabled individuals, based on the responses of 200 college students, yielded two major second-order factors. These two second-order factors of Net Affect and Authoritarian Virtuousness are further discussed in light of their intrafactor and interfactor relationships.     

Evaluating a more cost-efficient alternative to providing in-home feedback to parents: the use of spousal feedback.

We evaluated the contribution of spousal feedback to a parent education curriculum designed for parents of children with autism. A modified multiple baseline design across 3 husband-and-wife dyads was used to examine the effects of teaching parents to give each other feedback on their teaching performance. For 5 of 6 participants, improvement in teaching performance occurred following didactic presentations. However, additional improvement was observed for 5 participants when the spousal feedback component was implemented.     

A bias-corrected exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of right-wing authoritarianism: Support for a three-factor structure

The factor structure of right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) remains a contentious issue. Although designed to measure three underlying attitude clusters, aggression, submission and conventionalism, many items are deliberately double- or triple-barrelled, to capture the covariation of the three clusters in a unidimensional scale. Additionally, although the scale is balanced, there is an item wording direction bias in the clusters; aggression items are pro-trait, and conventionalism items are con-trait. Sub-scale structure is therefore potentially confounded with acquiescence bias. Although RWA as a unitary construct has been an effective tool for exploring prejudice, it would be useful in many cases to measure its underlying components directly. Proposed solutions to this problem include creating short-form scales as subsets of the original scale, or modifying items to simplify and un-confound the structure. We present convergent evidence of an underlying factor structure by considering one-, two- and three-factor solutions to the uncorrected scale and then using an indirect method to correct for acquiescence bias. Before and after correction, factor analysis supported a three-factor solution. Confirmatory factor analyses also support a three-factor solution compared to a one-factor solution.     

Sex differences in the structure of intelligence: A confirmatory factor analysis

The LISREL model of Jöreskog and Sörbom was used to perform a comparative factor analysis on intelligence data from four sex by generation groups. The covariance matrices for 10 psychometric ability measures were used to isolate Spatial and Verbal Intelligence factors. Results from a series of factor analysis models indicated substantial invariance in the factor pattern and factor covariance matrices, although the hypothesis of complete invariance in factor pattern was rejected. The groups did differ in observed and unique variances. The results were basically consistent with the hypothesis that males and females have similar intellectual structure, which would have been obscured had standardized factor analysis been employed. There were also sex and generation differences in the Spatial and Verbal factor means.     

Crime prevention: more evidence-based analysis

This paper introduces a new section of Psicothema dedicated to the evidence-based approach to crime prevention. Along with an original sexual-offender-treatment programme implemented in Spain, this section presents four systematic reviews of important subjects in the criminological arena, such as sexual offender treatment, the well-known programme, the effectiveness of custodial versus non-custodial sanctions in reoffending and the fight against terrorism. We also highlight some of the focal points that scientists, practitioners and governments should take into account in order to support this evidence-based viewpoint of crime prevention.