Applicant Reactions to Selection Procedures: An Updated Model and Meta-Analysis

An updated theoretical model of applicant reactions to selection procedures is proposed and tested using meta-analysis. Results from 86 independent samples  ( N = 48,750)  indicated that applicants who hold positive perceptions about selection are more likely to view the organization favorably and report stronger intentions to accept job offers and recommend the employer to others. Applicant perceptions were positively correlated with actual and perceived performance on selection tools and with self-perceptions. The average correlation between applicant perceptions and gender, age, and ethnic background was near zero. Face validity and perceived predictive validity were strong predictors of many applicant perceptions including procedural justice, distributive justice, attitudes towards tests, and attitudes towards selection. Interviews and work samples were perceived more favorably than cognitive ability tests, which were perceived more favorably than personality inventories, honesty tests, biodata, and graphology. The discussion identifies remaining theoretical and methodological issues as well as directions for future research.     

Proactively balancing the validity and legal compliance of personal background measures in personnel management

Despite its proven utility and validity for the prediction of performance, the use of certain biodata questions for selection is being restricted because of fears of charges of discrimination, or of invasion of privacy, arising from increasingly stringent state and federal laws governing employment (Ash, 1989). The objective of this study was to develop alternative items that were valid and also perceived as nondiscriminatory and noninvasive for two biodata subscales in a well-researched biographical inventory. The newly developed subscales had acceptable KR-20 reliability coefficients. Sizeable and significant correlations between the corresponding original and newly developed subscales attested to the latter's construct validity. The performance criterion validity of the new subscales was demonstrated by significant correlations with both salary and with level of organizational functioning, which were regarded as measures of the individual's worth to the organization. The results of the present study encourage the expectation that biodata items can be constructed that are (1) valid, (2) in compliance, and (3) with a sufficiently low level of perceived invasiveness that will allow both the applicant and the test user to be comfortable with their use.     

COMPARABILITY OF INCUMBENT AND APPLICANT SAMPLES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIODATA KEYS: THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL DESIRABILITY

An index of Socially Desirable Responding (SDR) was developed to measure the extent of impression management exhibited in applicant and incumbent samples when responding to a biodata form. The sample consisted of 2,262 incumbent sales representatives and 2,726 applicants for sales positions. Greater applicant versus incumbent SDR was observed, but differences varied across a priori item content areas. Impression management was minimal in item categories such as Previous Work Experience and Economic Motivation, but it was more prevalent in categories such as Work Style and Preferences and Self-Evaluations of Prior Sales Success. Using a smaller sample of 810 incumbents and 555 applicants, largely equated for experience, an item-keyed biodata inventory was developed for selection. When regression procedures were used to develop final keys, no comparable items existed across the keys from the two samples. SDR was more highly related to the applicant key than to the incumbent key. Results for option-keyed instruments developed and validated on the same samples were compared with the results associated with the item-keyed instruments, and the conclusions were similar. Implications for the development of biodata forms for selection are discussed.     

Job context, selection decision outcome, and the perceived fairness of selection tests: biodata as an illustrative case

S. W. Gilliland (1993) has proposed a model of perceived selection system fairness to help understand applicants' prehire and posthire behavior. The present study aimed to verify and extend his framework by investigating the role of job context in the formation of fairness perceptions of biodata. A sample of 255 students (108 men, 147 women) completed an operational biodata instrument, believing that it would be used to hire persons for either international, local, or unspecified entry-level managerial positions. Participants were then presented with outcome information (selected or rejected for further consideration). Consistent support was found for the research hypotheses derived from the Gilliland model. Participants' perceptions of the fairness and job relatedness of biodata were affected by the selection context and decision outcome. The importance of considering selection context in assessments of perceived test fairness is discussed.     

POTENTIAL VERSUS ACTUAL FAKING OF A BIODATA FORM: AN ANALYSIS ALONG SEVERAL DIMENSIONS OF ITEM TYPE

Two studies examined faking of a 25-item biodata questionnaire. The first study investigated potential and actual faking of the form using three groups: a group told to make themselves look as good as possible, a group told to complete the form honestly, and a group completing the instrument in a real selection situation. Subjects were 58 current employees and 231 job applicants. Results indicated that subjects could fake the instrument when instructed to do so. Also, some faking appeared to be occurring in practice, although results depended upon the composition of the comparison group. Only eight items appeared to be fakable, and only three of these seemed to be faked in practice. In Study 2, 26 business majors rated the biodata items on eight dimensions of item type. Results showed that the three items faked in practice were less historical, objective, discrete, verifiable, and external than other items, and were more job relevant.     

A CONCEPTUAL RATIONALE FOR THE DOMAIN AND ATTRIBUTES OF BIODATA ITEMS

There is considerable disagreement among researchers regarding the defining attributes of biodata items, especially in contrast to other self-report measures. This paper provides a conceptual rationale for the use of biodata in order to evaluate various proposed attributes of biodata, and to clarify similarities and differences between biodata and temperament items. It is suggested that the core attribute of biodata items is that the items pertain to historical events that may have shaped the person's behavior and identity. Other attributes advanced as antidotes to socially desirable responding and faking are that biodata items reflect external events, that they be limited to objective and first-hand recollections, that they be potentially verifiable, and that they measure discrete, unique events when appropriate. Some researchers also require that the life events being sampled be controllable and equally accessible to all respondents. Items may also need to be visibly job relevant and nonintrusive to avoid legal censure. Disagreements among researchers regarding the importance of these attributes are discussed, and implications for practice and research are proposed.     

THE EFFECTS OF REQUIRED ELABORATION OF ANSWERS TO BIODATA QUESTIONS

The impact of a request that examinees elaborate on their answers to a subset of items in a biodata instrument was evaluated. Four forms of a test in which different subsets of items are elaborated were randomly administered to 4 groups of examinees taking a pilot form of a selection instrument for a civil service position. Results indicated significantly lower scores on items for which elaborations were requested than the items for which no elaborations were requested. Lower scores were also observed for nonelaborated items when these items were embedded among those that were elaborated, and lower scores were found when the elaborated items were presented only in the first half of the test. Although the results suggest that requiring elaborated answers may reduce scores on biodata items, several practical and theoretical questions should be investigated to determine the utility of this approach as a method of reducing socially desirable responding.     

An Examination of Biodata Theory‐Based Constructs in a Field Context

This study examined whether items from a biodata inventory were consistent with theory‐based constructs as suggested by the ecology model. The model posits five constructs explain biodata predictive ability. Items were sorted using the theory‐based construct domains. The resulting scale scores were assessed for evidence of content, criterion‐related, and construct validity in a sample of 6032 automated systems controllers. Results suggested moderate support for the theory‐based constructs. A notable finding was that items capturing a theoretical construct were impacted by the life stage in which they were anchored. Results further suggest the need to examine if certain life stages are more predictive than others or perhaps if certain constructs are more predictive when related to a particular life stage.     

Ethnicity in America and feeling "American"

Ethnic group acculturation remains a concern in the United States today. In the present study, the authors explored the extent to which members of three ethnic groups (White American women, African American women, and Cuban American women) perceived themselves to be "American," how much each group felt that its members were perceived as being American by White Americans, and how these perceptions related to beliefs about their own group's economic and social status. The results showed that African Americans felt American but felt that they were not perceived as such by White Americans. African Americans also reported feeling economically and socially excluded. In contrast, Cuban Americans reported neither feeling they were American nor believing they were perceived as such by White Americans, but feelings of inclusion increased with length of residence. Implications of these results for the common ingroup identity model are discussed.     

Rethinking the use of personal history information: The value of theory-based biodata for predicting turnover

This article argues the case for the use of theoretically-grounded biodata information as valid predictors of employee behavior and outlines a procedure for the use of biodata variables with relatively small samples. The usefulness of this approach was demonstrated in a study assessing the ability of theory-based biodata items to predict the turnover of bank tellers. The results of this study demonstrate the predictive power and the practical value of using carefully chosen biodata information. In particular, tenure in prior job, relevance of prior job experience, and education level were found to significantly predict teller turnover.     

What Price Attractiveness? Stereotype and Risk Factors in Suntanning Behavior

Two experiments examined stereotype and risk factors in suntanning. In the first, subjects formed more positive impressions of a target described as having a suntan than of a control target. Ratings were not as positive, however, if the tan was portrayed as having been intentionally sought. A negative facet to the tan stereotype, in terms of perceived vanity, was also observed. In the second, subjects observed a videotape documenting the risks associated with sun exposure either before or after responding to a questionnaire dealing with attitudes and beliefs about suntanning. The results were consistent with the interpretation that the tape influenced observers in the direction of perceiving a tan as less attractive and enhancing their concern about the dangers of tanning. Subjects displayed the "optimistic bias" effect (Weinstein, 1980) in their estimated likelihood of getting skin cancer. While those with higher reported tan levels were more likely to endorse the attractiveness stereotype associated with a suntan, there was minimal evidence that these individuals were apprehensive or concerned about the risk factors. Their responses to a number of items suggested a measure of resistance or denial. Women generally indicated greater awareness and concern about risks than did men. The results of both studies suggest the important role played by images perceived to be associated with suntanning. In the context of mounting evidence regarding the carcinogenic properties of sun exposure, implications for changes in tanning behavior were considered.     

Parents' Responses to Television Violence: The Third-Person Perception,Parental Mediation,and Support for Censorship

Extending prior research on the third-person effect, which has focused on perceived media effects on adults, the present study examined parents' beliefs about the effects of televised violence on their own and other children, and how these perceptions are related to two different behavioral responses: parental mediation of television and support for censorship. Respondents were parents of children aged 3 to 18 (N = 70), who were contacted as part of a random sample for a larger study. Via telephone interviews, parents rated their perceptions of three effects of televised violence: (1) viewing the world as a dangerous place; (2) approving of aggression; and (3) behaving aggressively. As predicted, third-person perceptions were observed for all three types of influence, but were larger for the more socially undesirable aggression - related effects. Both parental mediation and support for censorship were associated with the perceived effects of televised violence. Evidence suggested that parents' behavioral responses were motivated by concern about both their own and other children, but that the pattern of responses varied for the three different effects of viewed violence.     

Scoring Biodata: Is it rational to be quasi‐rational?

Five quasi‐rational biodata scales were developed by empirically keying biodata items to predict scores on a measure of the Big Five dimensions of personality. The criterion‐related validities of the quasi‐rational scales were compared to empirical and rational biodata keying methods using supervisory ratings of job performance as the criterion. Empirical keying outperformed the quasi‐rational and rational methods (which had similar validities).     

ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE FOR THE ACCURACY OF BIOGRAPHICAL DATA: LONG-TERM RETEST AND OBSERVER RATINGS

Although the predictive validity of biographical information has been extensively documented in a variety of environments, the extent to which responses to a biodata questionnaire are accurate has not been adequately investigated. In particular, the accuracy of unverifi-able biodata items has not been determined. Evidence of accuracy was obtained in the present study using a test-retest design and informed external observers for verification. Responses were obtained from 237 study participants and 200 observers. Factor and item re-test correlations were obtained for subject and observer data, and responses were compared using product-moment correlations and t tests. Results provide evidence that many responses to a biodata questionnaire are accurate. Sources of inaccuracy were assessed, including the impact of social desirability, and applications of the findings to industrial uses of biodata were noted.     

The Impact of Biodata Item Attributes on Validity and Socially Desirable Responding

Mael's taxonomy of biodata item attributes is applied to two biodata instruments in order to investigate the relationship between item attributes and (1) validity and (2) socially desirable responding. The results show a strong relationship between item attributes and validity, with items that are more historical, external, objective, discrete, and verifiable and less job relevant displaying stronger validities. Weaker relationships are observed between the item attributes and socially desirable responding. Implications of these results for building a clearinghouse for documentation of objective biodata items is discussed.     

Body Size Beliefs and Weight Concerns Among Mothers and Their Adolescent Children

African American and White mother/adolescent pairs were examined for familial associations in body size and weight concerns. Mothers' and adolescents' estimates of adolescents' body mass index (BMI) were significantly correlated. Compared to boys, girls had greater body dissatisfaction, higher weight concerns, and perceived higher family/friend weight concerns. By race, White adolescents had more body dissatisfaction and greater concern about weight than African American adolescents. Four items explained 70.4% of the variance in adolescents' weight concern scores: adolescents' weight management practices, mothers' reports of adolescents' saying they were too fat, adolescents' perceptions of family/friends' weight concerns, and adolescents' body dissatisfaction. Our study suggests White girls are more concerned about their weight and perceive greater weight and dieting concerns among family/friends than African American girls.     

Perceptions of parental attitudes toward body and eating: associations with body image among Black and White college women

This study examined Black and White young women's perceptions of parental body- and eating-related attitudes and behaviors from growing up and the relations of these parental factors with their current body image. Female undergraduates (97 Black women, 179 White women) completed questionnaires of perceptions of parental attitudes/behaviors related to body image and eating and of their current body image, operationalized as weight/shape concern. Results indicated that perceived parental communication was more strongly related to body image than perceived parental modeling in both ethnic groups, and that there were some differences in how frequently Black and White women reported encountering specific maternal messages about the body or eating. Perceived parental modeling and communication constructs were related to body image in similar ways for both ethnic groups after controlling for BMI. Future research directions are discussed.     

Adolescent Empathy and Prosocial Behavior in the Multidimensional Context of School Culture

The authors investigated whether students' positive perceptions of their high school's culture were associated with higher levels of empathy and prosocial behavior. The authors collected information from 2 samples to ensure a wide range of school culture perceptions. As expected, empathy and prosocial behavior were correlated. As evidence of the validity of the measure of school culture, students in a small alternative school perceived their school culture as more positive than did students in the companion large, traditional high school. More positive perceptions of school culture were associated with higher levels of empathy but not with prosocial behavior. Results were moderated by gender but not by age. Male students with higher levels of emotional concern (one aspect of empathy) perceived peer relationships (one aspect of school culture) to be more positive than did those with lower levels of emotional concern. This study highlights the importance of using multidimensional constructs for school culture and empathy to understand the effects of schooling on youth.     

Adolescent empathy and prosocial behavior in the multidimensional context of school culture

The authors investigated whether students' positive perceptions of their high school's culture were associated with higher levels of empathy and prosocial behavior. The authors collected information from 2 samples to ensure a wide range of school culture perceptions. As expected, empathy and prosocial behavior were correlated. As evidence of the validity of the measure of school culture, students in a small alternative school perceived their school culture as more positive than did students in the companion large, traditional high school. More positive perceptions of school culture were associated with higher levels of empathy but not with prosocial behavior. Results were moderated by gender but not by age. Male students with higher levels of emotional concern (one aspect of empathy) perceived peer relationships (one aspect of school culture) to be more positive than did those with lower levels of emotional concern. This study highlights the importance of using multidimensional constructs for school culture and empathy to understand the effects of schooling on youth.