Are two heuristics better than one? The fluency and distinctiveness heuristics in recognition memory

Four experiments were conducted to test the impact of having multiple heuristics (distinctiveness and fluency) available during a recognition test. Recent work by Gallo, Perlmutter, Moore, and Schacter (Memory & Cognition 36:461–466, 2008) suggested that fluency effects are reduced when the distinctiveness heuristic can be applied to a recognition decision. In Experiment 1, we used a response reversal paradigm (Van Zandt & Maldonado-Molina Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 30:1147–1166, 2004) to demonstrate that participants transitioned from an early response strategy that was largely reliant on fluency to a later strategy in which the influences of fluency and distinctiveness were both observable. Experiments 2a, 2b, and 3 showed no evidence for reduction of the fluency heuristic after picture study when the test required a delayed response (Exp. 2a), confidence ratings (Exp. 2b), or the application of conceptual fluency (Exp. 3). The results are consistent with models of memory that assume that familiarity and recollection influence individual memory decisions Wixted (Psychological Review, 114:152–176, 2007).     

Acquired equivalence and distinctiveness in human discrimination learning: evidence for associative mediation

In the first stage of Experiments 1-3, subjects learned to associate different geometrical figures with colors or with verbal labels. Performance in Stage 2, in which the figures signaled which of 2 motor responses should be performed, was superior in subjects required to make the same response to figures that had shared the same Stage 1 associate. A third stage of testing showed that the events used as associates in Stage 1 were capable of evoking the motor response trained in Stage 2, an outcome predicted by an associative interpretation of such transfer effects. Experiment 4 provided evidence that the relevant associations can be effective in controlling motor responding even when subjects report an antagonistic relationship between events.     

Cross-domain Repetition Priming in Person Recognition

Three experiments examining repetition priming of personal names are reported. In each experiment, faces are used as prime stimuli and people's names as the test stimuli. Experiment 1 fails to demonstrate priming from faces to names when the same task-a familiar/ unfamiliar judgement-is made in prime and test phases. Experiment 2 shows that priming is observed when the same semantic judgement (British/ American) is made in prime and test phases. Experiment 3 shows that priming is observed when different semantic judgements (dead/ alive, British/ American) are made at prime and test phase. These results suggest that transfer appropriate processing cannot provide the sole account of repetition priming in person recognition. Instead, the results are interpreted in terms of a structural account of priming, embedded within an interactive activation and competition model of person recognition.     

The object-line inferiority effect in pigeons

Eight pigeons (Columba livia) were trained to discriminate between diagonal lines presented alone or embedded in a redundant L-shape right-angle form. The stimuli were white and were presented in an environment that was otherwise totally dark. Numerous experiments done with human observers have shown a strong superiority effect when the diagonal lines are embedded in redundant contexts. However, in Experiment 1 ofthe present study, the pigeons discriminated significantly better between the two diagonal lines when presented alone than when they were embedded in the right-angle context. In order to check on the possibility that these results were restricted to the semi-Ganzfeld condition of Experiment 1, a second experiment was done with black stimuli presented on a white background. Results of Experiment 2 also showed a strong distractor effect. The results of the present experiments confirmed the predictions of the Heinemann and Chase model of pattern recognition by pigeons.     

Carry-over effects in face recognition: Processing mode or attentional window?

This study investigates whether or not the dominant processing mode (global or local) in a Navon task is carried over to a face recognition task when the dominant processing mode (configural or featural) in an encoding phase is manipulated. In Experiment 1, Navon figures that were equal in size to a facial photograph were prepared. Participants performed better on the face recognition task after reading large letters in the Navon figures than after reading small letters when configural processing was required in the encoding phase. In Experiment 2, Navon figures that were equal in size to the parts of a face were prepared. The performance after reading large letters did not differ from that after reading small letters. This suggests that both the dominant processing mode in Navon tasks and the size of Navon figures should be considered when discussing the effects of Navon tasks in face recognition.     

Interactions between perceptual organization based on Gestalt laws and those based on hierarchical processing

Our recent research with compound stimuli (Han, Humphreys, & Chen, 1999a) suggests that grouping between local elements facilitates the perception of global structure, whereas encoding closure in local elements enhances their segmentation. The present study presents further evidence supporting this assertion. Experiment 1 first developed a new paradigm in which grouping between local elements was manipulated. Subjects responded to the orientations of perceptual groups consisting of local arrows or triangles embedded in background crosses. Responses to the orientations of the groups were slowed as a function of the increased contrast of the crosses, indicating that the strength of grouping between local arrows or triangles was gradually weakened by increasing the contrast of the crosses. Using a similar paradigm, Experiments 2 and 3 investigated the role of Gestalt factors in hierarchical analysis. Global arrows or triangles made up of local arrows, or triangles were embedded in background crosses. Subjects responded to global or local stimuli in terms of orientation or closure. Increasing the contrast of the background crosses produced stronger effects on global responses than on local responses and resulted in elimination of the global precedence effect and emerging of a local precedence effect, which was stronger for closure discrimination than for orientation discrimination. These results provide new evidence supporting our previous claim about the role of Gestalt factors in hierarchical analysis.     

Different Gestalt processing for different actions? Comparing object-directed reaching and looking time measures

Six experiments compared the Gestalt processing that mediates infant reaching and looking behaviors. Experiment 1 demonstrated that the positioning and timing of 8- and 9-month-olds' reaching was influenced by remembered relative motion. Experiment 2 suggested that a visible gap, without this relative motion, was not sufficient to produce these effects. Experiment 3 found that 6- and 7-month-olds required both remembered relative motion and a continuously visible gap to affect reaching; when two separate objects were placed adjacent to one another, they were treated as though they were connected. Experiments 4 and 5, using a looking time measure, identified a dissociation between looking and reaching performance. In Experiment 6, 6- and 7-month-olds' reaching was influenced when display parts differed in shape and color. In these experiments, Gestalt processing for looking was more influenced by remembered information than was Gestalt processing for reaching. For reaching, a low weighting of separation cues was also apparent.     

Re-examining the contribution of visuospatial working memory to inhibition of return

Castel and colleagues (Percept Psychophys 65(6):970–981, 2003) proposed that visuospatial working memory is needed to retain and update the irrelevant but attended location in an inhibition of return (IOR) procedure. In a series of three experiments, we re-examined this hypothesis by loading visuospatial working memory and manipulating the timing of encoding. When the visuospatial memory items were presented right after the cue, as in Castel et al. (Percept Psychophys 65(6):970–981, 2003), we replicated the lack of IOR in the dual-task condition (Experiment 1). However, when we presented the visuospatial memory items before the spatial cue, to control for retroactive interference in encoding, we found robust IOR effects (Experiment 2); the effect remained strong even when participants were prevented from using verbal labels to rehearse the memory material (Experiment 3). We conclude that IOR does not seem to depend on retaining the position of the irrelevant cue in visuospatial working memory.     

Function transfer in human operant experiments: the role of stimulus pairings

Although function transfer often has been studied in complex operant procedures (such as matching to sample), whether operant reinforcement actually produces function transfer in such settings has not been established. The present experiments, with high school students as subjects, suggest that stimulus pairings can promote function transfer in conditions that closely approximate those of matching to sample. In Experiment 1, the subjects showed transfer of operant responding from three geometric figures (C1, C2, C3) to three colored shapes (B1, B2, B3) when the latter were paired with the former. Experiment 2 involved two groups of subjects. In the matching group, subjects matched the colored shapes with the geometric figures; in the yoked group, the shapes were merely paired with the geometric figures, and the schedule of stimulus pairing was yoked to the performance of the subjects in the matching group. Both groups of subjects showed function transfer. Experiment 3 documented function transfer from C stimuli to B stimuli through indirect stimulus pairings (A-B, A-C). In Experiment 4, function transfer was obtained even though the subjects vocalized continuously during the pairing trials, presumably preventing covert verbalization that might mediate transfer effects. Our results are consistent with a Pavlovian account and raise difficulties for current operant theories of function transfer.     

Effects of geometric distortions,Gaussian blur,and contrast negation on recognition of familiar faces

It is assumed that “configural processing” is important for recognizing people whom we know. Studies have shown better discrimination of relational changes between facial features when faces are presented upright than upside down and when presented as photographic negatives. However, studies have also demonstrated tolerance for complex changes to facial configuration of familiar faces when images are geometrically distorted. In two experiments, we explored effects of linear stretching, Gaussian blur, and contrast negation on recognition of familiar or unfamiliar faces (Experiment 1) and familiar or unfamiliar company brand logos (Experiment 2). Only contrast negation severely impaired recognition of familiar faces but not unfamiliar faces or company brand logos. Effects of contrast negation were additional to linear stretching, whereas linear stretching independently had no impact on recognition. These findings highlight an important deficit in the recognition of familiar faces caused by contrast negation.     

Proportional and nonproportional transfer of movement sequences

Two experiments were designed to determine participants' ability to transfer a learned movement sequence to new spatial locations. A 16-element dynamic arm movement sequence was used in both experiments. The task required participants to move a horizontal lever to sequentially projected targets. Experiment 1 included 2 groups. One group practised a pattern in which targets were located at 20, 40, 60, and 80° from the start position (long sequence). The other group practised a pattern with targets at 20, 26.67, 60, and 80° (mixed sequence). Both groups were tested 24 hours later on the long, mixed, and short sequence. The short sequence was considered a proportional transfer for the long acquisition group because all the amplitudes between targets were reduced by the same proportion. Nonproportional transfer occurred when the amplitudes between targets did not have the same proportions as those for their practice sequence (e.g., long sequence to mixed sequence or vice versa). The results indicated that participants could effectively transfer to new target configurations regardless of whether the transfer required proportional or nonproportional spatial changes to the movement pattern. Experiment 2 assessed the effects of extended practice on proportional and nonproportional spatial transfer. The data indicated that while participants can effectively transfer to both proportional and nonproportional spatial transfer conditions after 1 day of practice, they are only effective at transferring to proportional transfer conditions after 4 days of practice. The results are discussed in terms of the mechanism by which response sequences become increasingly specific over extended practice in an attempt to optimize movement production.     

Proportional and nonproportional transfer of movement sequences

Two experiments were designed to determine participants' ability to transfer a learned movement sequence to new spatial locations. A 16-element dynamic arm movement sequence was used in both experiments. The task required participants to move a horizontal lever to sequentially projected targets. Experiment 1 included 2 groups. One group practised a pattern in which targets were located at 20, 40, 60, and 80° from the start position (long sequence). The other group practised a pattern with targets at 20, 26.67, 60, and 80° (mixed sequence). Both groups were tested 24 hours later on the long, mixed, and short sequence. The short sequence was considered a proportional transfer for the long acquisition group because all the amplitudes between targets were reduced by the same proportion. Nonproportional transfer occurred when the amplitudes between targets did not have the same proportions as those for their practice sequence (e.g., long sequence to mixed sequence or vice versa). The results indicated that participants could effectively transfer to new target configurations regardless of whether the transfer required proportional or nonproportional spatial changes to the movement pattern. Experiment 2 assessed the effects of extended practice on proportional and nonproportional spatial transfer. The data indicated that while participants can effectively transfer to both proportional and nonproportional spatial transfer conditions after 1 day of practice, they are only effective at transferring to proportional transfer conditions after 4 days of practice. The results are discussed in terms of the mechanism by which response sequences become increasingly specific over extended practice in an attempt to optimize movement production.     

Face recognition: Effects of study to test maintenance and change of photographic mode and pose

Facial recognition performance was examined as a function of changes in the target between initial exposure (study) and a subsequent recognition test. Photographic mode (colour vs. black and white) was changed in Experiments 1 and 2 and pose (front vs. profile) was changed in Experiment 2. The predictions of three information quantity models and of encoding specificity were contrasted. The information hypotheses predict that colour photographs will be better recognized when presented in colour than in black and white; the more specific predictions differ depending on the modes at study and test. Encoding specificity predicts recognition performance will be better when study and test modes are the same. The results of Experiment 1 showed that performance was highest when pictures remained in the same mode from study to test, and decreased when the mode was changed. Change of mode was particularly detrimental when the faces were studied in black and white and tested in colour. Experiment 2 showed a pattern of results also in accord with encoding specificity. The photographic mode and pose effects did not interact. Change of pose had a greater effect than change of photographic mode. Experiment 2 did not replicate the transformation asymmetry found in Experiment 1. The results indicate that for facial recognition memory, change lowers recognition, but the magnitude of the effect depends on the kind of change.     

Target enhancement and distractor inhibition affect transitory surround suppression in dual tasks using multiple rapid serial visual presentation streams

Few studies have investigated the interaction between temporal and spatial dimensions on selective attention using dual tasks in the multiple rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigm. A phenomenon that the surround suppression in space changes over time (termed transitory surround suppression, TSS, in the present study) has been observed, suggesting the existence of this time–space interaction. However, it is still unclear whether target enhancement or distractor inhibition modulates TSS. Four behavioural experiments were conducted to investigate the mechanism of TSS by manipulating the temporal lag and spatial distance factors between two targets embedded in six RSVP streams. The TSS effect was replicated in a study that eliminated confounds of perceptual effects and attentional switch (Experiment 1). However, the TSS disappeared when two targets shared the same colour in a between-subjects design (Experiment 2a) and a within-subject design (Experiment 2b), suggesting the impact of target enhancement on TSS. Moreover, the TSS was larger for within-category than for between-category distractors (Experiment 3), indicating the impact of distractor inhibition on TSS. These two influences on TSS under different processing demands of target and distractor processing were further confirmed in a skeletal design (Experiment 4). Overall, combinative effects of target enhancement and distractor suppression contribute to the mechanisms of time–space interaction in selective attention during visual search.     

Perception of the standard and the reversed Müller-Lyer figures in pigeons (Columba livia) and humans (Homo sapiens)

The authors compared perception of the standard and reversed Müller-Lyer figures between pigeons (Columbia livia) and humans (Homo sapiens). In Experiment 1, pigeons learned to classify 6 lengths of target lines into "long" and "short" categories by pecking 2 keys on the monitor, ignoring the 2 brackets so placed that they would not induce an illusion. In the test that followed, all 3 birds chose the "long" key more frequently for the standard Müller-Lyer figures with inward-pointing brackets (><) than for the figures with outward-pointing brackets (<>). The subjects' responses were accountable by neither overall lengths of the figures nor horizontal gaps between the 2 brackets. For the reversed figures, effects of the brackets were absent. These results suggested that the pigeons perceived the standard Müller-Lyer illusion but not the reversed one. Experiment 2 confirmed that humans perceived both types of the illusion. Pigeons and humans may perceive the same illusory figures in different ways.     

Discrimination of multidimensional geometrical figures by chickens: categorization and pattern-learning

Japanese bantam hens were trained to discriminate between geometrical figures varying along four integral dimensions. Only one dimension predicted food: selections of sharp-cornered figures were reinforced, while selections of rounded figures were not. In experiment 1, hens were subsequently trained to discriminate between nine figure pairs in a simultaneous discrimination task. Because single pairs contained multiple redundant cues, whereas the relevant dimension was obvious only across stimulus pairs, the results revealed effects of both generalization and reversal learning. Accordingly, learning speed was enhanced for later discriminations. Experiment 2 tested the hens’ transfer performance to unknown pairs, following experience of 9 or 18 figure pairs. Four of seven hens showed reliable transfer after experience with 9 figures, but only three showed transfer after experience with 18 figures, indicating lower transfer with higher number of stimulus pairs learned. In experiment 3, hens were trained to discriminate 27 figure pairs. Discrimination ratios further decreased and the groups of pairs differed significantly in their ratios of discrimination. Individual hens’ pecking behaviour was analysed in relation to each dimension of single figures and in relation to relative differences in the levels of dimensions between paired figures. Hens were shown to be oriented towards irrelevant information and more towards relational and configurational than elemental and dimensional aspects. The results are discussed in the biological context of individual recognition in chickens’ dominance hierarchies, in which we suppose that chickens identify individual flock mates by representation of their visual pattern rather than by single characteristics. Received: 18 September 1998 / Accepted after revision: 23 December 1998     

Is the Motor or the Garage More Important to the Car? The Difference Between Semantic Associations in Single Word and Sentence Production

The aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of part-whole (e.g., car-motor) and functional associations (e.g., car-garage) on single word (Experiment 1) and sentence production (Experiment 2). In Experiment 1, a classical picture-word task was used. In Experiment 2, the same stimuli and distractors were embedded into a sentence. The relation between target and distractor was either part-whole, functional or unrelated. At single word level, part-whole and functional relations facilitate naming. Additionally, the facilitation effect was stronger for part-whole in comparison to functional associations. During sentence production, facilitation shifted to interference. The difference between both relations disappeared. The findings of the different effects between functional and part-whole associations depend on the length of utterances and highlight the divergent impact of associations. The differences between part-whole and functional associations in single word production might reflect a differential organization of associative links at the conceptual level. In contrast, during sentence production the syntactic processing at the lexical level seem to be more important than types of semantic associations at the conceptual level.     

Memorability judgments for high- and low-frequency words

Five experiments were conducted in order to examine subjects’ judgments of the memorability of high- (HF) and low-frequency (LF) words in the context of a recognition memory task. In Experiment 1, the subjects were provided study/test experience with a list of HF and LF words prior to making memorability judgments for a new list of HF and LF items. The findings were consistent with previous evidence (Greene & Thapar, 1994; Wixted, 1992) suggesting that subjects are not explicitly aware of the greater recognition memorability of LF words. Experiments 2–5 embedded the memorability judgment task within the recognition test itself. In these experiments, the subjects consistently gave higher memorability ratings to LF items. The contrast between the pattern of results found when the subjects made their judgments at the time of list presentation (Experiment 1) and that when they made their judgments during the recognition test (Experiments 2–5) is consistent with recent evidence that even seemingly highly related metamnemonic judgments (e.g., ease of learning judgments vs. judgments of learning for the same items) may be based on very different factors if they occur at different points in the study/test cycle. The present findings are also consistent with the possibility that very rapid retrieval of memorability information for HF and LF words may affect recognition decisions and may contribute to the recognition memory word frequency effect.     

Item type,occlusion, and gender differences in mental rotation

Two experiments were conducted to examine the role of item type in mental rotation. In each experiment, participants completed two computerized mental rotation tasks, one with blocks as stimuli and one with human figures as stimuli. The tasks were formatted either as a multiple-choice psychometric test (Experiment 1) or as a same–different type task (Experiment 2). Aside from the expected replication of a decreased effect of occlusion on women's accuracy when processing human figures compared to block figures, it was hypothesized that response times would increase when processing the complex but familiar human figures, compared to the simple but unfamiliar block figures. In Experiment 1, the results relevant to occlusion were replicated. However, the presence of a speed–accuracy trade-off suggested that participants processed human figures faster but less accurately than block figures. In Experiment 2, both men and women performed faster and more accurately when processing occluded human figures than when processing nonoccluded human figures. The effect of item type, its potential link to embodied cognition, and the role of strategy selection on gender differences in mental rotation are discussed.