The real and the ideal; gender differences in heterosexual behaviour among Norwegian adolescents

This article focuses on gender differences in early heterosexual behaviour among Norwegian adolescents. The material comprised a random sample of 3000 Norwegian adolescents aged 17–19 years. The response rate was 63%. Data were collected by means of anonymous self-administered questionnaires. Sixty-nine per cent of the girls and 59% of the boys had had sexual intercourse. The majority of the adolescents, and a larger percentage of girls than of boys, had their first intercourse within a relationship of mutual commitment. The boys' first coital partners were 0.2 years younger than the boys themselves and the girls' partners were 2.8 years older than were the girls. Boys had had more coital partners than girls but girls had had intercourse more often than boys. Coital frequency was affected more by how long the adolescents had known the partner than by gender as such. In conclusion, boys and girls aged between 17 and 19 years form part of couples at two different stages of development. For this reason, boys and girls accumulate different sexual experiences in the early stage of their sexual careers.     

Sex-specific pathways to early puberty, sexual debut, and sexual risk taking: tests of an integrated evolutionary-developmental model

The current study tested sex-specific pathways to early puberty, sexual debut, and sexual risk taking, as specified by an integrated evolutionary-developmental model of adolescent sexual development and behavior. In a prospective study of 238 adolescents (n = 129 girls and n = 109 boys) followed from approximately 12-18 years of age, we tested for longitudinal relations between ecological stressors, family relationships, pubertal maturation, self-perceived mate value, and sexual risk taking in both boys and girls. Consistent with the theory, (a) higher levels of familial and ecological stress predicted earlier sexual debut and greater sexual risk taking; (b) pubertal maturation partially mediated these relations among girls but not among boys; (c) father absence had unique effects on female sexual outcomes but not on male sexual outcomes; (d) higher self-perceived mate value directly predicted earlier sexual debut and, through it, greater sexual risk taking; and (e) relations between pubertal maturation and early sexual debut were partially mediated by higher self-perceived mate value in boys but not in girls. Discussion focuses on the contribution of an integrated evolutionary-developmental theory to the adolescent sexual health literature.     

A sexual selection theory longitudinal analysis of sexual segregation and integration in early adolescence

The three objectives in this longitudinal study were motivated by sexual selection theory. The theory specifies the role of sexually segregated groups and the effects of dominance in male groups and relational/indirect aggression in female groups for heterosexual relationships. Using a multi-method, multi-informant, longitudinal design we studied youngsters (N=138) across their first two years of middle school. First, we examined the nature of change in segregation and dating popularity across two years during early adolescence. Second, a model derived from sexual selection theory is tested to explain the ways in which boys and girls are nominated for hypothetical dates (dating popularity). Third, we examined the role of "poke and push courtship" behavior in boys' and girls' dating popularity. Results indicate that although groups did not become more integrated with time, changes in peer group sexual integration co-varied dynamically with dating popularity. Secondly, dominance-related strategies were more important for boys than girls in dating popularity whereas indirect, or relational, aggression strategies were more important for girls than boys. Third, "poke and push courtship" behaviors did not influence peer group integration or dating.     

Same-gender and cross-gender peer acceptance and peer rejection and their relation to bullying and helping among preadolescents: comparing predictions from gender-homophily and goal-framing approaches

The relation between bullying and helping and same-gender and cross-gender peer acceptance and peer rejection was examined in a sample of preadolescents aged 11 and 12 years (N=1,065). The authors tested predictions from a gender-homophily approach vs. predictions from a goal-framing approach in which acceptance and rejection are seen as being generated by approach and avoidance goals, respectively. For preadolescents, both approaches predicted a central role for gender, but the gender-homophily approach predicted symmetrical effects for acceptance and rejection, whereas the goal-framing approach predicted strong asymmetries. The data supported the goal-framing approach. The most important findings were that for preadolescents, acceptance is much more frequent and much more gendered than rejection; the absolute impact of helping on acceptance is much larger than that of bullying (and vice versa for rejection); for acceptance, there is a prototypicality effect (i.e., boys accept bullying girls better than nonbullying girls, and girls accept helping boys better than nonhelping boys); and for acceptance, there is a cross-gender ignorance effect (i.e., boys ignore helping in girls, and girls ignore bullying in boys).     

Sociosexual Orientation and Sexual Behavior in Mexican Adults

Sociosexual orientation includes individual differences in sexual attitudes and behaviors, in relation to the extent in which an individual could be sexually active without affective bonds and commitment. Sociosexuality is related to sexual behavior and can speak to the differences between men and women in how they express their sexuality ( Simpson & Gangestad, 1991 ; Hebl & Casi, 1995 ; Ostovich & Sabini, 2004 ). This study explores sociosexual orientation and sexual behavior in Mexican adults, in order to identify differences in sociosexual orientation related to biological sex and relationship status. It also assesses the relationship between sociosexual orientation and sexual behavior and to predict sexual behavior from sociosexual orientation. The sample was composed of 209 Mexican adults between 19 and 61 years of age. Thirty‐seven percent were male, and 63% were female. Participants answered a standardized Spanish version of the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory ( Simpson & Gangestad, 1991 ) and a Sexual Behavior Inventory developed for the present project ( García Rodríguez, 2007 ). In general, there is great variability in the frequency of each of the sexual behaviors assessed and in the total number of sexual partners. Moreover, participants perceive themselves restricted in their sexual attitudes and behaviors. Men are more permissive and less restricted in attitudes and behaviors than women, and individuals who are dating informally have a higher behavioral sociosexual orientation than those who are living with their partner. Additionally, the higher sociosexuality, the more frequent sexual practices are and the higher the number of sexual partners. Finally, sociosexuality predicts the frequency of sexual practices and the number of lifetime sexual partners.     

Developmental Trajectories of Boys’ and Girls’ Delinquency: Sex Differences and Links to Later Adolescent Outcomes

This study examined gender differences in trajectories of delinquent behaviors over a 6-year period in adolescence and differential outcomes of these diverse developmental pathways. Participants were 754 children who were part of a longitudinal study of the development of early starting conduct problems. Four trajectory patterns were identified across grades 7–12: increasing, desisting, chronic, and nonproblem groups. Although the proportion of boys and girls varied across the pathways, both genders were represented on these trajectories. Boys were more represented on the chronic and desisting trajectories; girls were more represented in the nonproblem group. However, the proportion of boys and girls was similar in the increasing trajectory. Trajectory membership significantly predicted age 19 outcomes for partner violence, risky sexual behavior and depression, and the risk conferred on these negative adjustment outcomes did not vary by gender. The overall pattern was characterized by poor outcomes at age 19 for youth in both the chronic and the increasing trajectories. The major conclusion is that, other than base rate differences, developmental patterns and outcomes for girls mimic those previously found for boys.     

The gray area: exploring attitudes toward infidelity and the development of the Perceptions of Dating Infidelity Scale

Prior research has distinguished between emotional versus sexual infidelity. Two studies examined the development of the Perceptions of Dating Infidelity Scale (PDIS) to assess attitudes toward specific behaviors that constitute these types of infidelity in romantic relationships. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses indicated three factors to the scale: Ambiguous, Deceptive, and Explicit behaviors. In both studies, there were gender differences on ratings of the behaviors. The construct validity of the scale was assessed with measures of sociosexual orientation, guilt, and coping with unwanted sexual situations. It was found that the Ambiguous behaviors were positively correlated with avoidance of unwanted sexual situations, while the Deceptive and Explicit scales were positively correlated with guilt and avoidance and negatively associated with an unrestricted sociosexual orientation and acting on attractions toward friends.     

Gender-Typed Play Behavior in Early Childhood: Adopted Children with Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Parents

This study examined whether the gender-typed play of young children varies as a function of family structure. Using a sample of 126 couples (44 lesbian couples, 34 gay male couples, and 48 heterosexual couples) located throughout the United States, with an adopted child between the age of 2 and 4?years old (mean?=?2.5?years), we examined parent reports of children’s gender-typed play behavior utilizing the Pre-School Activities Inventory (PSAI; Golombok and Rust 1993). Findings revealed that the perceived play behaviors of boys and girls in same-gender parent families were more similar (i.e., less gender-stereotyped) than the perceived play behavior of boys and girls in heterosexual-parent families (which were more divergent; that is, gender-stereotyped). Sons of lesbian mothers were less masculine in their play behavior than sons of gay fathers and sons of heterosexual parents. Our findings have implications for researchers who study gender development in children and adolescents.     

不同性别比和童年经济状况对未婚男性性态度的影响

基于进化心理学的生命史理论,通过两个实验探讨性别比和童年经济状况同男性性态度间的关系。实验1和实验2分别采用图片和文字材料启动被试的性别比感知,结果发现感知性别比和童年经济状况对未婚男性的"随意性行为"态度表现出显著的交互效应：童年家庭经济状况差的未婚男性在感知到周围女性数量相对充裕的情境下,其性开放态度会较感知到周围男性数量充裕时明显上升;童年家庭富裕的男性的性开放态度在不同感知性别比下保持相对稳定。     

West Indian teachers', parents', and students' attitudes toward adolescent behavior problems

Attitudes toward adolescent behavior problems were surveyed using samples of teachers, parents, and secondary school students in Barbados. Fifty-two behaviors were rated for their impact on students' school and general social adjustment. Results revealed high positive correlations between groups in terms of ranked positions of problems, and also between rankings of problems of both boys and girls. However, parents rated the majority of problems higher (more serious) than did teachers, while adults generally awarded higher ratings than did male students, especially for conduct problems. Female students' responses were highly similar to those of adults, except in respect to heterosexual activity, which they rated more serious in boys, while most adults rated it much more serious in girls. Implications for discipline and guidance are considered.     

Adolescents' understandings of infidelity

This study explored younger adolescents' (aged 14–17 years; N = 204; 50% girls) understandings of infidelity and whether these understandings differed for girls and boys. Analyses revealed that younger adolescents' understandings of infidelity included an array of physical, affective, cognitive, and verbal behaviors with an extradyadic partner. No gender differences were found. In addition, younger adolescents' understandings of infidelity were compared to older adolescents' (aged 17–21 years; N = 214; 50% girls) understandings. Results showed that younger adolescents' salient understandings of infidelity more often included light, affectionate behaviors such as hugging and kissing an extradyadic partner, whereas older adolescents' salient understandings more often included heavy physical behaviors, including sexual intercourse and oral sex. Gender comparisons with older adolescents revealed that boys' salient understandings of infidelity included higher numbers of heavy physical behaviors, whereas girls' salient understandings included higher numbers of light, affectionate behaviors. Results demonstrate that infidelity is a complex and multifaceted construct for adolescent girls and boys and suggest that developmental researchers should examine understandings of infidelity beyond sexual extradyadic experiences. Implications for adolescent development and psychosocial health are discussed.     

不同性别比和童年经济状况对未婚男性性态度的影响

基于进化心理学的生命史理论,通过两个实验探讨性别比和童年经济状况同男性性态度间的关系。实验1和实验2分别采用图片和文字材料启动被试的性别比感知,结果发现感知性别比和童年经济状况对未婚男性的"随意性行为"态度表现出显著的交互效应：童年家庭经济状况差的未婚男性在感知到周围女性数量相对充裕的情境下,其性开放态度会较感知到周围男性数量充裕时明显上升;童年家庭富裕的男性的性开放态度在不同感知性别比下保持相对稳定。     

African American child-women: nutrition theory revisited

Past research indicates a significantly higher prevalence of early sexual maturation in African American (AA) girls, which is associated with a number of psychological and behavioral problems as well as with health problems such as childhood obesity and diabetes. Both nutrition and body image perceptions have never before been empirically investigated in the context of early puberty. The present study analyzed nutritional differences among AA girls who experience early sexual maturation with those who do not, as well as the dynamics of early sexual maturation, food consumption, and body image perceptions of AA girls. Participants were 45 AA girls ages 7-10 years, and guardians who were recruited from Boys and Girls Clubs in the southeastern part of the U.S. The Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals and Fallon and Rozin's (1985) Body Image Checklist was used to assess the food intake and body image perceptions of the young girls. Evidence of early sexual maturation was operationalized as the parental report of development of any secondary sexual characteristics (breasts, hips, pubic hair) in the young girl. A two-day food intake recall was conducted over a representative weekday period. Results revealed a significant difference between the calcium and fiber consumption of the AA girls who experienced early sexual maturation versus those who did not. Also, results indicated a relationship between parental characteristics, household shopping practices, and food consumption of the young girls. These findings are important and can be used to predict, prepare, and educate the AA population as well as establish appropriate support systems for these child-women.     

Personal Control, Self-Efficacy in Sexual Negotiation, and Contraceptive Risk among Adolescents: The Role of Gender

Adolescents’ sexual decision making is shaped by normative ideas about “appropriate” sexual roles for women and men; consequently, the motivation and ability to engage in safer sex may be different for adolescent girls and boys. The aim of this study was to explore how social–psychological resources influence the behavior of girls and boys within the highly gendered and inequitable domain of sexual relationships. I used data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) to examine whether personal control and self-efficacy in sexual negotiation are associated with contraceptive risk (engaging in sexual intercourse or not using condoms) among adolescents and whether these associations differ for adolescent boys and girls. Results indicate that personal control and self-efficacy in sexual negotiation are significantly associated with safer sex behavior, and are often more important for girls than for boys in predicting contraceptive risk.     

Childhood disruptive behaviors and family functioning in clinically referred children: Are girls different from boys?

Baseline assessments of 4 to 8-year-old children, 26 girls and 101 boys, referred to outpatient treatment for disruptive behaviors, were examined, focusing on possible differences between the functioning of boys and girls and their families. Child variables included diagnostic information, measures of disruptive behaviors, social competence, and independent observations of child behaviors. A variety of family variables, such as information regarding parenting practices, parental stress, and depression were included. Teacher reports of disruptive behaviors and social competence at school were included. Teacher ratings of child functioning indicated that boys displayed significantly more externalizing behaviors and they were less socially competent than girls. Parents perceived both girls and boys as highly oppositional and aggressive, and generally speaking, differences were few. Nevertheless, the level of stress was higher in girls' than in boys' families, and mothers of girls reported of higher levels of depressive symptoms. Girls and boys did not differ regarding diagnostic status.     

Patterns of Sexuality Communication Between Preadolescents and Their Mothers and Fathers

The purpose of the current study was to examine communication about sexual topics between preadolescents and their mothers and fathers. Participants were 135 African-American mothers, fathers, and their 9- to 12-year-old offspring. Each member of the triad completed a 10-item measure of communication about risk factors for sexual activity, sexual communication, and sexual risk prevention. A majority of parents and their preadolescents reported communication had occurred about most topics. Mothers and fathers were equally likely to communicate with sons whereas mothers were more likely to communicate with daughters than were fathers. Based on the study results, preadolescence may be the optimal time for parents to provide sexual risk prevention messages to their children before sexual behaviors are initiated.     

Preadolescent attitudes toward the elderly: an analysis of race, gender and contact variables

Preadolescent attitudes toward the elderly were examined through analysis of race, gender, and contact variables. Subjects were randomly selected preadolescents (mean = 12.8 years), a total of 157 students (91 boys and 66 girls), comprising three ethnic groups (49% white, 30% Mexican-American, 21% black). The investigator instructed each student to complete the Tuckman-Lorge Old People Scale, and a self-report contact questionnaire, thereby establishing three contact groups (high, medium, low). Data were analyzed via an ANOVA. The results revealed that only one of the variables studied, race, was significantly related to attitudes toward the elderly. The white preadolescents possessed the most positive attitudes toward the elderly. The greatest differences were between the white and black female preadolescents. These results suggest that preadolescent attitudes toward the elderly are culturally related. It can be concluded that as a variable, race should receive more attention in future attitudinal studies of the preadolescent.     

Peer-Reputational Influences and Academic Achievement: Exploring Gender Differences

This study explored the impact of peer-reputations for academic ability and affect/liking on academic outcomes in a sample of preadolescents. In light of the popular stereotypes regarding the differential academic abilities of girls and boys (favoring girls in English, and boys in math and science), it was hypothesized that peer-reputations in English would be more predictive of academic outcomes (measured via school-grades and standardized test-scores) for girls than for boys, while math and science reputations would be most predictive of boys’ academic outcomes. Further, it was also hypothesized that these links would be stronger for school-grades than for standardized test-scores. As expected, overall, peer-reputations were found to be predictive of school-grades but not standardized test-scores. Further, the results reveal that although ability reputations in most areas were predictive of grades for both sexes, gender differences were observed which were consistent with hypotheses. Results suggest that children’s peer-reputations may play an important role in their academic achievement, especially within domains most central to their gender identities.     

Five-month-old girls' and boys' exploratory behaviors in the presence of familiar and unfamiliar toys.

The exploratory behaviors of 60 5-month-old girls and boys were observed as they played with three unfamiliar toys and one familiar toy of their own during a laboratory session. Infants were seated at a table on the lap of an assistant. Each toy was placed on the table and remained there for 2 min after the infant first touched it. Frequency and duration of visual fixation on the toy, hand contact with the toy, five categories of lateralization, and eight categories of handling behaviors were measured. On the whole, the exploratory behaviors of girls and boys were not markedly different. However, girls spent more time than boys did in simultaneous hand contact with and visual fixation on their own familiar toy, whereas boys made more frequent contact with the familiar toy without visual fixation. In addition, boys displayed, overall, more tapping behaviors, and girls, more pinching and object-displacement behaviors. Girls and boys did not differ in manual lateralization. Results are discussed in reference to infants' rate of development, motor activity level, and girls' and boys' reactions to novelty.     

Reactive, but not proactive aggression predicts victimization among boys

Prospective links among reactive aggression, proactive aggression, and victimization by peers were investigated in a longitudinal sample of 238 preadolescents (aged 10-13 years, 52% girls). No predictive links were found between victimization and either type of aggression among girls. Among boys, reactive aggression predicted higher future levels of victimization but was not itself affected by prior victimization. In contrast, boys' proactive aggression predicted lower levels of future victimization and was itself reduced by their prior victimization. Finally, reactive aggression predicted later proactive aggression for both boys and girls. These results are explained in terms of the different reactions that others have to proactive and reactive aggression, the different functions they serve, and to the different types of aggression that are common for boys and girls.