Cognitive Emotion Regulation: Insights From Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience

ABSTRACT— Recent developments in the study of cognitive emotion regulation illustrate how functional imaging is extending behavioral analyses. Imaging studies have contributed to the development of a multilevel model of emotion regulation that describes the interactions between neural systems implicated in emotion generation and those implicated in emotional control. In this article, we review imaging studies of one type of cognitive emotion regulation: reappraisal. We show how imaging studies have contributed to the construction of this model, illustrate the interplay of psychological theory and neuroscience data in its development, and describe how this model can be used as the basis for future basic and translational research.     

青少年抑郁及其自动情绪调节的研究概述

本文旨在梳理近年来国内外青少年抑郁及其自动情绪调节在相关研究领域的研究成果,以进一步促进青少年抑郁的自动情绪调节研究。首先,阐明了青少年脑发展与抑郁之间的关系,并概括了三种青少年抑郁模型。然后,澄清了自动情绪调节的内涵和经典范式,而且从时间和空间方面,总结了青少年抑郁的自动情绪调节的神经机制的相关文献。最后,未来要加强功能连接研究,采用经颅直流电刺激(t DCS)、重复经颅磁刺激(r TMS)技术开展干预研究。     

认知重评和表达抑制情绪调节策略的脑网络分析：来自EEG和ERP的证据

本文旨在对认知重评和表达抑制两种常用情绪调节策略的自发脑网络特征及认知神经活动进行深入探讨。研究采集36名在校大学生的静息态和任务态脑电数据, 经过源定位和图论分析发现节点效率与两种情绪调节显著相关的脑区, 以及脑区之间的功能连接。研究结果表明, 在使用认知重评进行情绪调节时会激活前额叶皮质、前扣带回、顶叶、海马旁回和枕叶等多个脑区, 在使用表达抑制进行情绪调节时会激活前额叶皮质、顶叶、海马旁回、枕叶、颞叶和脑岛等多个脑区。因此, 这些脑区的节点效率或功能连接强度可能成为评估个体使用认知重评和表达抑制调节情绪效果的指标。     

Emotion regulation in depression: Examining the role of cognitive processes

Sustained negative affect is a hallmark feature of depressive episodes. The ability to regulate emotional responses to negative events may therefore play a critical role in our understanding of this debilitating disorder. Individual differences in cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and interpretation may underlie difficulties in emotion regulation and numerous studies have identified cognitive biases and deficits that characterise depressed people. Few studies, however, have explicitly linked these biases to the difficulties in emotion regulation that are associated with depression. In this paper we discuss relations among cognitive processes and emotion regulation and review the depression literature to identify cognitive biases and deficits that may underlie maladaptive responses to negative events and mood states. Our review suggests that difficulties in the disengagement from negative material, memory biases, and deficits in cognitive control are frequently observed in depressive disorders and may be associated with the use of maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, such as rumination. These biases may also be related to difficulties implementing strategies that are effective for non-depressed people, such as recall of mood-incongruent material and reappraisal. Our review also suggests, however, that empirical studies linking cognitive biases and emotion regulation in depression are still largely missing and would present an important goal for future research in this area.     

情绪调节的理论观点、相关模型及其展望

情绪调节近年来获得许多研究的关注,呈现跨学科趋势,但对其内涵仍存在争议。本文首先评述了情绪调节研究领域内两种典型的观点--单因素观和双因素观,然后对目前盛行的Gross的情绪调节过程模型进行述评,并从神经科学出发着重于Ochsner的情绪认知控制模型。未来可基于发展观采用观测和经验取样测量开展纵向研究,加强多水平的神经生物学研究,和情绪调节中个体差异的分子遗传研究。     

Measuring the executive regulation of emotion with self-rating scales in a nonclinical population

Prefrontal systems play an important role in the regulation of emotion as evidenced by clinical neuroimaging studies. Both subjective and objective neuropsychological tests provide functional evidence of executive dysfunction in emotional deregulation. The present authors evaluated these relationships here in a nonclinical community sample using the Frontal Systems Behavior Scale, Profile of Mood States (POMS), and Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS). Positive correlations uniformly emerged between prefrontal system dysfunction and negative emotional states (anger, depression, anxiety, stress, confusion, and fatigue), whereas positive emotion (vigor) showed a modest inverse correlation with prefrontal system dysfunction, even after control for demographic influences. These relationships may result from cognitive strategies for managing emotion mediated by reciprocal connections between prefrontal systems and the limbic system. The findings corroborated those of other methodologies, supporting the Frontal Systems Behavior Scale (FrSBe) as a valid tool to measure prefrontal function in nonclinical populations.     

积极情绪调节的ERP研究

利用ERP技术研究认知重评对积极情绪调节及后续认知任务的影响。先呈现积极图片,要求被试被动观看或认知重评。接着呈现情绪词,要求被试进行效价判断。结果显示,在情绪调节阶段,与被动观看或评价忽视相比,评价重视调节下的LPP更大。在词呈现阶段,被试的反应时受情绪调节的影响,表现为:评价忽视>评价重视>被动观看。在160-720ms期间,认知重评之后词汇所诱发的ERP与被动观看后词汇的ERP有显著差异,支持情绪调节损耗认知资源的观点。     

依恋对情绪调节过程的影响

以依恋理论为基础的研究已证明依恋对情绪调节的影响,但这些研究忽视了情绪调节作为一个过程的复杂性和多样性,因此现有研究无法回答依恋为何会对情绪调节产生影响。扩展过程模型将情绪调节分为三个阶段,并清晰地描述了情绪调节的过程以及过程中各因素之间的关系。从该模型来看,在情绪调节的三个阶段均可发现与依恋有关的个体差异,并且依恋对于情绪调节早期阶段的影响可能是导致后期阶段产生个体差异的原因。未来的研究应在探讨依恋对情绪调节的影响的同时关注环境因素的影响;设计新的实验范式以证实情绪调节三阶段的连续性并探索依恋影响情绪调节的潜在机制;探讨依恋对情绪调节灵活性的影响。此外,未来的干预研究应设计更具针对性的干预措施来改善非安全依恋个体的情绪调节。     

Error-monitoring ability predicts daily stress regulation

ABSTRACT— This study examined whether individual differences in error-related self-regulation predict emotion regulation in daily life, as suggested by a common-systems view of cognitive and emotional self-regulation. Participants ( N = 47) completed a Stroop task, from which error-related brain potentials and behavioral measures of error correction were computed. Participants subsequently reported on daily stressors and anxiety over a 2-week period. As predicted by the common-systems view, a physiological marker of error monitoring and a behavioral measure of error correction predicted emotion regulation in daily life. Specifically, participants higher in cognitive control, as assessed neurally and behaviorally, were less reactive to stress in daily life. The results support the notion that cognitive control and emotion regulation depend on common or interacting systems.     

Increasing negative emotions by reappraisal enhances subsequent cognitive control: A combined behavioral and electrophysiological study

To what degree do cognitively based strategies of emotion regulation impact subsequent cognitive control? Here, we investigated this question by interleaving a cognitive task with emotion regulation trials, where regulation occurred through cognitive reappraisal. In addition to obtaining self-reports of emotion regulation, we used the late positive potential (LPP) of the event-related brain potential as an objective index of emotion regulation. On each trial, participants maintained, decreased, or increased their emotional response to an unpleasant picture and then responded to a Stroop stimulus. Results revealed that (1) the magnitude of the LPP was decreased with reappraisal instructions to decrease negative emotion and were enhanced with reappraisal instructions to increase negative emotion; (2) after cognitive reappraisal was used to increase the intensity of negative emotion, RT interference in the subsequent Stroop trial was significantly reduced; and (3) increasing negative emotions by reappraisal also modulated the cognitive control-related sustained potential. These results suggest that increasing negative emotions by cognitive reappraisal heightens cognitive control, which may be sustained for a short time after the regulation event.     

自动化情绪调节策略对特质焦虑大学生应激反应的影响

研究采用句子整理任务诱发自动化情绪调节策略,特里尔社会应激测试模拟应激过程,以探讨认知重评和表达抑制对不同特质焦虑倾向大学生在应激状态下的影响。结果发现,自动化认知重评和表达抑制能获得适应性生理反应。自动化情绪调节策略适用于不同特质焦虑倾向的个体。特质焦虑对个体应激反应的影响主要体现在情绪体验上,高焦虑特质个体更易体验到焦虑情绪。但个体在压力性任务中的生理反应和行为表现不受特质焦虑因素的影响。     

心理虐待对儿童认知情绪调节策略的影响：人格特质的中介作用

采用儿童认知情绪调节问卷、儿童版艾森克人格问卷、儿童心理虐待量表对405名8～12岁儿童进行研究,考察人格特质在心理虐待对认知情绪调节策略关系中的中介作用。结果发现：(1)儿童心理虐待与不适应性认知情绪调节策略呈显著正相关;儿童神经质与不适应性认知情绪调节策略呈显著正相关儿童内外倾与适应性认知情绪调节策略呈显著正相关(2)儿童神经质在心理虐待与儿童不适应性认知情绪调节策略关系间起到完全中介作用（3）该中介模型具有性别和年龄的测量等值性。研究结果显示,儿童心理虐待可以通过神经质的中介作用影响不适应性认知情绪调节策略。     

睡眠不足对人际交互的影响及其认知神经机制

睡眠不足会对人的认知、情感和人际交互产生诸多影响。这种影响在社会情绪层面表现为个体情绪共情和认知共情的减少,易激惹性与愤怒情绪的增加;在社会行为层面则表现为亲社会行为的减少和攻击行为的增加。在睡眠不足状态下,情绪系统和认知系统功能连接的减弱可能是这些变化的潜在机制。未来应结合生态效度较高的睡眠操作手段,系统考察睡眠不足如何导致各种高级社会情绪的改变,以及这些社会情绪的变化如何导致社会行为的变化。     

Guarding against hostile thoughts: trait anger and the recruitment of cognitive control

Trait anger is a robust predictor of the angry and aggressive response to hostile situational input, but it is important to better understand the mechanisms underlying this dimension of personality. The present two studies (total N=106) examined the possibility that individuals low in trait anger systematically recruit cognitive control resources within hostile contexts. These resources would likely be useful in facilitating emotion regulation operations. In support of this cognitive control framework, Experiment 1 found that low (but not high) trait anger individuals exhibited superior response-switching abilities in a hostile stimulus context. Experiment 2 conceptually replicated this pattern using a different cognitive control measure related to flanker interference effects. The convergence of findings across studies provides one likely mechanism for the reduced levels of reactivity at low levels of trait anger. Findings are discussed in relation to broader theories of trait anger and emotion regulation.     

晚期正成分的时间-空间迁移模式在情绪调节发展研究中的应用

近二十年,使用认知神经科学手段探讨情绪调节成为了研究的热点。晚期正成分(Late Positive Potential,LPP)是情绪调节脑电研究中的一个典型成分,在不同的时间窗中分析LPP的波幅的变化及其优势激活脑区的迁移能够反映情绪调节加工过程中个体由对情绪刺激的感知到相应的认知调控过程的转变。LPP的时间-空间迁移模式被应用于情绪调节的发展研究,揭示从童年到青少年再到成年期个体情绪的潜在神经机制。研究者关注幼儿期、童年期、青少期、成人期个体在情绪调节加工过程中LPP波幅的变化及其时间-空间迁移模式特征,把不同年龄段个体情绪调节的发展特点与其大脑关键脑区(主要是前额叶)发育状况进行联系,为儿童身体发育和心理发展的主题提供更多的证据支持。未来的研究应加强对LPP在异常发展研究中应用,关注大脑发育与激素变化对LPP变化的影响,并加强对LPP调节效应的个体差异等问题的探讨。     

Emotion regulation strategies in daily life: mindfulness,cognitive reappraisal and emotion suppression

Most empirical studies of emotion regulation have relied on retrospective trait measures, and have not examined the link between daily regulatory strategies and every day emotional well-being. We used a daily diary methodology with multilevel modelling data analyses (n = 187) to examine the influence of three emotion regulation strategies (mindfulness, cognitive reappraisal and emotion suppression) on the experience of daily negative and positive affect. Our results suggested that daily mindfulness was associated with lower negative and higher positive affect whereas the converse pattern was found for daily emotion suppression; cognitive reappraisal was related to daily positive, but not negative affect. When daily mindfulness, suppression and reappraisal were included in the same models, these strategies predicted unique variance in emotional well-being. Random slope analyses revealed substantial variability in the utility of these strategies. Indeed the presumably “adaptive” cognitive reappraisal strategy seemed to confer no benefit to the regulation of negative affect in approximately half the sample. Additional analyses revealed that age moderates the effect of cognitive reappraisal on daily negative affect: Higher use of reappraisal was associated with more negative affect for adolescents (aged 17 to 19) but became associated with less negative affect with increasing age. We interpret these results in line with a contextual view of emotion regulation where no strategy is inherently “good” or “bad”.     

A Developmental Neuroscience of Borderline Pathology: Emotion Dysregulation and Social Baseline Theory

Theoretical and empirical research has linked poor emotion regulation abilities with dysfunctional frontolimbic circuitry. Consistent with this, research on borderline personality disorder (BPD) finds that frontolimbic dysfunction is a predominant neural substrate underlying the disorder. Emotion regulation is profoundly compromised in BPD. However, BPD is also associated with broad impairment across multiple domains, including impulse control, interpersonal relationships, and cognitive functioning. To date, BPD research has focused largely on single areas of dysfunction, failing to account for overlap at either the biological or behavioral levels of analysis. We examine the literature on frontolimbic dysfunction in BPD within the context of Coan’s social baseline theory. Social baseline theory proposes that healthy human functioning is dependent upon adequate social support and that, at baseline, biological systems are adapted to operate interdependently rather than independently. The social baseline perspective is particularly useful for understanding borderline personality development because the impulsive and emotionally dysregulated behaviors common among those with BPD occur almost invariably within an interpersonal context. We discuss clinical and research implications of this work.     

Differences in emotion modulation using cognitive reappraisal in individuals with and without suicidal ideation: An ERP study

Difficulties in emotion regulation have been associated with increased suicidal thoughts and behaviours. The majority of studies have examined self-reported use of emotion regulation strategies. In contrast, the current study focused on a direct measure of individuals’ ability to use a specific emotion regulation strategy, cognitive reappraisal, using the late positive potential (LPP), an event-related potential component that reflects attention to emotional stimuli. Specifically, the cognitive reappraisal ability of 33 undergraduate students was assessed via an image-viewing task during which the participants had to passively view, increase or reduce their emotions in response to looking at neutral, positive or dysphoric images. We found that participants with a history of suicidal ideation (SI) had significantly higher LPP when asked to reduce negative emotion in response to dysphoric images, compared to individuals with no history of SI. These findings suggest that difficulties with using cognitive reappraisal, specifically to decrease negative affect, might be linked to suicide risk.     

Emotion regulation choice: the role of environmental affordances

Which emotion regulation strategy one uses in a given context can have profound affective, cognitive, and social consequences. It is therefore important to understand the determinants of emotion regulation choice. Many prior studies have examined person-specific, internal determinants of emotion regulation choice. Recently, it has become clear that external variables that are properties of the stimulus can also influence emotion regulation choice. In the present research, we consider whether reappraisal affordances, defined as the opportunities for re-interpretation of a stimulus that are inherent in that stimulus, can shape individuals’ emotion regulation choices. We show that reappraisal affordances have stability across people and across time (Study 1), and are confounded with emotional intensity for a standardised set of picture stimuli (Study 2). Since emotional intensity has been shown to drive emotion regulation choice, we construct a context in which emotional intensity is separable from reappraisal affordances (Study 3) and use this context to show that reappraisal affordances powerfully influence emotion regulation choice even when emotional intensity and discrete emotions are taken into account (Study 4).     

情绪调节对消极元刻板印象激活的认知效应的影响

以101名中职生为被试,采用不同难度的工作记忆任务,探讨认知重评与表达抑制两种情绪调节策略对消极元刻板印象激活的认知效应的影响。结果发现:(1)情绪调节策略对元刻板印象激活的认知效应具有影响,且与认知任务的难度有关;(2)在低难度工作记忆任务中,情绪调节策略对元刻板印象激活的认知效应没有影响,在中等难度任务中,认知重评减弱了激活的认知效应,但表达抑制没有影响,在高难度任务中,认知重评没有影响,表达抑制反而增强了激活的认知效应。总之,不同情绪调节策略会对消极元刻板印象激活的认知效应产生不同的作用。