金钱刺激和决策者角色对个体道德决策的影响——基于过程分离范式

以大学生为被试,采用3（金钱刺激：无金钱刺激、金钱奖励、金钱惩罚）×2（决策者角色：决策者、旁观者）的被试间实验设计,利用过程分离范式分别计算被试道德决策中的功利主义倾向和道义论倾向,从而探讨金钱刺激和决策者角色对个体道德决策的影响。结果发现：（1）无论是决策者还是旁观者,金钱刺激都不会影响其道义论倾向;（2）决策者的道义论倾向大于旁观者;（3）只在有金钱奖励时决策者的功利主义倾向才大于旁观者。     

奖励和惩罚在注意控制过程中的优化和分离：眼动研究

通过两个眼动实验考察金钱奖励和惩罚引起的动机对个体在不同空间线索条件下注意控制加工的影响。实验1采用朝向/反向眼跳范式, 被试通过内源性线索提供心理准备的情况下做出简单的朝向眼跳以及需要抑制优势反应的反向眼跳。结果发现, 相比无奖惩条件, 奖励条件下朝向眼跳任务的正确率更高, 惩罚条件下反向眼跳任务的正确率更高; 两种眼跳任务中有奖惩条件下的眼跳峰速度均比无奖惩条件高。实验2采用Go/No-go任务, 进一步探讨了由副中央凹加工外源性边缘线索从而不能提供充分心理准备的情况下奖励和惩罚对注意控制的影响。结果发现, 奖励条件下Go反应的眼跳潜伏期更短, 惩罚条件下No-go反应正确率更高, 眼跳峰速度在两种条件下均比无奖惩条件高。以上结果表明, 奖励和惩罚均能够促进个体的注意控制, 但二者的加工过程是分离的, 奖励能够改善趋近行为, 惩罚则能够显著促进抑制控制行为, 且奖励和惩罚在注意控制加工过程中具有不同的作用模式, 奖励能够更早唤醒注意控制系统从而更快地促进行为的发生与执行, 惩罚则能够通过调节注意资源促进以目标为导向的行为中对优势反应的抑制。     

编码和检索阶段的异质情境流畅性对再认的影响

研究采用经典的R/K范式，通过两个实验分别探讨编码阶段和检索阶段的异质情境流畅性对再认的影响。实验1为2（异质情境：高流畅性预期情境和低流畅性预期情境）×2（测试词类型：目标词和分心词）的混合实验设计，异质情境发生在编码阶段；实验2与实验1设计相同，不同之处在于异质情境发生在检索阶段。结果发现：异质情境发生在检索阶段时只对K反应产生影响，目标词在高流畅性情境中比低流畅性情境中的K反应率更高，而分心词在低流畅性情境中比高流畅性情境中的K反应率更高。研究表明，检索阶段的异质情境流畅性只影响熟悉性再认，支持双系统加工理论。     

群体购买情境下冲动性购买影响研究：解释水平视角

本研究基于解释水平理论视角,检验了消费者在群体购买情境中的冲动性购买行为.研究1采用2（解释水平：高vs.低）＆#215;2（自我建构：独立vs.互依）组间因子设计,用来检验解释水平是否调节自我建构类型对冲动性购买的影响;研究2采用2（解释水平：高vs.低）＆#215;2（认知模式：感知vs.模拟）组间因子设计,检验认知模式和解释水平对冲动性购买的联合影响.实验结果表明：群体购买情境下,消费者自我建构类别不同,冲动性购买意愿也不同,且受到解释水平的调节影响;群体购买情境下,消费者对他人认知模式的不同,对自身冲动性购买的影响也不同,解释水平在其中也起到了调节作用.     

女性生理周期对条件性恐惧习得和消退的影响

动物研究显示, 雌激素调节条件性恐惧习得和消退, 但是, 人类的性激素对条件性恐惧习得和消退的影响还不太清楚。因此, 本研究以大学生为研究对象, 考察女性不同生理周期对条件性情境恐惧的习得和消退的影响。20名经前期和20名经期女被试暴露于3种情境下：无厌恶刺激情境(N)、可预测情境(P)和不可预测情境(U), 预测此3种情境下是否出现厌恶刺激。以在线索条件下和无线索条件下对厌恶刺激的主观预期值为因变量。研究结果显示:在习得阶段, 经期女性在P情境下的条件性线索恐惧的主观预期值高于经前期女性; 经前期女性在3种情境下的条件性情境恐惧的主观预期值都高于经期女性, 但只在N情境和P情境, 与经期女性相比, 经前期女性对厌恶刺激的主观预期值存在显著差异。在消退阶段, 与经期女性相比, 经前期女性在3种情境下的条件性情境恐惧的主观预期值更高, 且经前期女性对厌恶刺激的主观预期值在N情境和P情境显著高于经期女性。该结果显示, 经前期女性对条件性情境恐惧易习得难消退, 表明此生理阶段的性激素影响大脑的情绪调节功能, 从而影响条件性情境恐惧。     

得失情境下第三方惩罚决策差异的神经机制：基于rTMS的研究

本研究应用低频rTMS技术,通过在第三方惩罚（研究1）及第三方惩罚和第三方补偿（恢复性惩罚）并存的情况下（研究2）,对个体双侧vmPFC功能进行抑制,探索vmPFC在得失情境下第三方惩罚决策中的作用。研究1结果表明,rTMS抑制右侧vmPFC功能将降低损失情境下的第三方惩罚,收益情境下未发生改变。研究2得到与研究1一致的结果,且第三方惩罚减少程度更大,第三方补偿并未发生改变。这些结果强调了vmPFC与第三方惩罚紧密相关,在第三方判断得失情境的影响时起关键作用。     

错误加工的神经机制

错误加工在认知控制和行为监控中起着关键的作用。监控自己的认知和行为结果,觉察到应该的反应和实际的反应之间的差别（即错误）,纠正这种错误并防止再犯是错误加工的主要内容。错误反应或由代表反应错误等负性反馈刺激诱发的ERP相对于正确反应或由代表反应正确等正性反馈刺激诱发的ERP,表现出一个相对负走向的波形变化,称为错误相关负波（error-related negativity, ERN）和反馈相关负波（feedback-related negativity, FRN）,两者都定位于前扣回附近。错误加工神经机制的研究主要集中于前扣回与ERN、错误意识与错误加工、ERN与FRN的关系。对于前扣带回和ERN的功能意义的解释主要有错误检测理论、冲突监控理论、强化学习理论和预期违反假说。目前错误加工神经机制的研究在研究内容、研究方法和理论观点等方面还存在些问题,这些可能是未来进一步的研究方向     

不同人际情境影响工作记忆的初探

采用信任博弈任务创设人际信任、人际背叛及背叛后利他惩罚三种人际情境,探讨三种人际情境对不同任务难度工作记忆的影响。结果发现：（1）随着工作记忆的难度增加,三组正确率均显著下降。在低难度任务中,人际信任组和背叛后利他惩罚组正确率均高于人际背叛组;中等难度任务中,人际信任组正确率高于背叛后利他惩罚组和人际背叛组;高难度任务中,三组正确率无明显差异;（2）随着工作记忆的难度增加,三组反应时均显著增加。低难度任务中,人际信任组、背叛后利他惩罚组反应时均低于人际背叛组;中等难度和高难度任务中,三组反应时无明显差异。结论：人际信任、人际背叛及背叛后利他惩罚对工作记忆有不同作用。     

财富越多，责任越大：资金数量和来源对公共物品困境中第三方惩罚的影响

本研究探讨了公共物品困境中,初始资金的数量和来源如何影响第三方对成员贡献值的评价及惩罚。行为结果发现了“贵族责任效应”,即在同等贡献值条件下,相比于获得较少初始资金的成员,第三方会更重地惩罚获得较多初始资金的成员。当初始资金是随机分配而非通过个人努力获得时,该效应更强。在神经层面上,发现初始资金的数量和来源调节了第三方评估贡献值时所诱发的FRN和P3成分。其中FRN波幅与惩罚力度显著相关。本研究揭示了初始资金数量和来源如何调节第三方对成员贡献的评估及相关惩罚决策。     

共情关怀对公平决策的影响——来自ERP的证据

本研究运用事件相关电位技术(event-related potential, ERP)和最后通牒博弈范式(ultimatum game, UG)考察了共情关怀对公平决策的影响。实验采用2 (状态共情关怀: 有共情关怀vs.无共情关怀) × 3 (分配公平性: 公平vs.劣势不公平vs.优势不公平)被试内设计, 共37名被试参与实验, 被试作为响应者选择是否接受提议者的分配提议。行为结果显示劣势不公平条件下, 有共情情境的接受率高于无共情情境; 优势不公平条件下呈现相反的结果。ERP结果显示: 对于他人提出的优势不公平提议, 无共情情境较有共情情境下诱发了更负的前部N1 (anterior N1, AN1), 有共情情境比无共情情境下诱发了更大的P2波幅; 有共情情境下, 他人提出的劣势不公平提议较优势不公平和公平提议诱发了更负的内侧额叶负波(medial frontal negativity, MFN); P3在公平条件下的波幅较劣势不公平条件下更大, 并未受到共情关怀的调节。这些结果表明共情关怀不仅调节了公平决策行为, 还调节了公平加工的早期注意和动机及之后的认知和情绪加工, 但由P3表征的高级认知过程仅受到公平性的调节而不受共情水平的影响。     

奖赏刺激的脑电反应特征跨文化差异:一个ERP研究

本研究从文化--社会神经科学的角度出发,采用事件相关电位的方法来探究不同文化背景下的个体对具有进化和社会文化代表性的正性刺激—奖赏刺激的脑电反应特征是否具有差异。本研究采用the Door Task实验范式考察了26名中国人和24名高加索白人对不同反馈反应的脑电特征跨文化差异。结果显示,负性反馈条件下诱发的FRN平均波幅比正性反馈条件诱发的平均脑电波幅更负,这种正负反馈的波幅差异只在中国被试中有体现。在P3成分上,在正性反馈条件下,中国被试诱发的脑电波幅大于西方被试,负性反馈条件下,两组无显著差异。研究结果表明,相对于西方被试,中国被试对奖赏反馈刺激可能具有较高的敏感性。这说明中西方文化下的个体对正负性反馈刺激的加工的脑电反应特征存在显著的差异。     

时间估计任务中的反馈加工和行为调节：来自ERP的证据

本研究采用时间估计任务, 利用高时间分辨率的ERP技术, 试图从时间进程上窥探行为调节的认知神经机制。该时间估计任务提供了指导行为调节的反馈信息有三类：时间估计的准确性、时间估计的不准确方向和不准确程度。行为结果表明, 被试根据前次时间估计的对错、不准确的方向和程度进行相应的调整。脑电成分发现, FRN对于时间估计的对、错敏感, 对时间估计的不准确的方向和程度不敏感, 显示FRN提供了粗略的、需要做出行为调节的早期预警信号; 相反, P300能够区别时间估计上不准确的方向和程度, 结合行为数据, 显示P300反映的是整合不同的信息来更新行为表征, 从而引导被试做出不同方向和不同程度的调节。这些结果表明, 行为调节的认知神经基础可能由两个阶段组成：早期传递需要做出行为调节的预警信号阶段和晚期整合信息来更新行为表征从而指导行为调节的阶段。     

Empathy and feedback processing in active and observational learning

The feedback-related negativity (FRN) and the P300 have been related to the processing of one’s own and other individuals’ feedback during both active and observational learning. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the role of trait-empathic responding with regard to the modulation of the neural correlates of observational learning in particular. Thirty-four healthy participants completed an active and an observational learning task. On both tasks, the participants’ aim was to maximize their monetary gain by choosing from two stimuli the one that showed the higher probability of reward. Participants gained insight into the stimulus–reward contingencies according to monetary feedback presented after they had made an active choice or by observing the choices of a virtual partner. Participants showed a general improvement in learning performance on both learning tasks. P200, FRN, and P300 amplitudes were larger during active, as compared with observational, learning. Furthermore, nonreward elicited a significantly more negative FRN than did reward in the active learning task, while only a trend was observed for observational learning. Distinct subcomponents of trait cognitive empathy were related to poorer performance and smaller P300 amplitudes for observational learning only. Taken together, both the learning performance and event-related potentials during observational learning are affected by different aspects of trait cognitive empathy, and certain types of observational learning may actually be disrupted by a higher tendency to understand and adopt other people’s perspectives.     

Sex differences in the neural underpinnings of social and monetary incentive processing during adolescence

The brain’s reward system undergoes major changes during adolescence, and an increased reactivity to social and nonsocial incentives has been described as a typical feature during this transitional period. Little is known whether there are sex differences in the brain’s responsiveness to social or monetary incentives during adolescence. The aim of this event-related potential (ERP) study was to compare the neurophysiological underpinnings of monetary and social incentive processing in adolescent boys versus girls. During ERP recording, 38 adolescents (21 females, 17 males; 13–18 years) completed an incentive delay task comprising (a) a reward versus punishment condition and (b) social versus monetary incentives. The stimulus-preceding negativity (SPN) was recorded during anticipation of reward and punishment, and the feedback P3 (fP3) along with the feedback-related negativity (FRN) after reward/punishment delivery. During anticipation of social punishment, adolescent boys compared with girls exhibited a reduced SPN. After delivery, male adolescents exhibited higher fP3 amplitudes to monetary compared with social incentives, whereas fP3 amplitudes in girls were comparable across incentive types. Moreover, whereas in boys fP3 responses were higher in rewards than in punishment trials, no such difference was evident in girls. The results indicate that adolescent boys show a reduced neural responsivity in the prospect of social punishment. Moreover, the findings imply that, once the incentive is obtained, adolescent boys attribute a relatively enhanced motivational significance to monetary incentives and show a relative hyposensitivity to punishment. The findings might contribute to our understanding of sex-specific vulnerabilities to problem behaviors related to incentive processing during adolescence.     

社会比较对合作任务结果评价的影响：来自ERP的证据

现实生活中人们通过社会比较获得对自身的认识。前人研究探讨了金钱收入的比较对个体结果评价的影响, 而非金钱的社会比较效应的神经加工机制尚不清楚。本研究分离比较和金钱收入, 使用双人合作的投骰子任务, 先呈现“>”或“<”代表两人点数大小的比较结果, 再呈现合作任务的输赢结果, 考察非金钱的社会比较对合作任务结果加工的影响, 记录任务表现的比较结果和最终合作任务结果的ERP数据。发现在任务表现比较结果阶段, FRN和P300对代表行为表现好坏的社会比较信息敏感, 呈现无金钱输赢提示的点数大小的比较结果时, 点数小于他人比大于他人诱发更大的FRN和更小的P300; 任务表现的比较结果对合作任务最终的金钱输赢结果的影响并没有反应在FRN上。这些表明, 对非金钱的社会比较信息的加工始于结果快速评价的早期阶段。     

Frontal cortex electrophysiology in reward- and punishment-related feedback processing during advice-guided decision making: An interleaved EEG-DC stimulation study

During decision making, individuals are prone to rely on external cues such as expert advice when the outcome is not known. However, the electrophysiological correlates associated with outcome uncertainty and the use of expert advice are not completely understood. The feedback-related negativity (FRN), P3a, and P3b are event-related brain potentials (ERPs) linked to dissociable stages of feedback and attentional processing during decision making. Even though these ERPs are influenced by both reward- and punishment-related feedback, it remains unclear how extrinsic information during uncertainty modulates these brain potentials. In this study, the effects of advice cues on decision making were investigated in two separate experiments. In the first experiment, electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded in healthy volunteers during a decision-making task in which the participants received reward or punishment feedback preceded by novice, amateur, or expert advice. The results showed that the P3a component was significantly influenced by the subjective predictive value of an advice cue, whereas the FRN and P3b were unaffected by the advice cues. In the second, sham-controlled experiment, cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (ctDCS) was administered in conjunction with EEG in order to explore the direct contributions of the frontal cortex to these brain potentials. Results showed no significant change in either advice-following behavior or decision times. However, ctDCS did decrease FRN amplitudes as compared to sham, with no effect on the P3a or P3b. Together, these findings suggest that advice information may act primarily on attention allocation during feedback processing, whereas the electrophysiological correlates of the detection and updating of internal prediction models are not affected.     

Feedback-related negativity codes outcome valence, but not outcome expectancy, during reversal learning

Optimal behavior depends on the ability to assess the predictive value of events and to adjust behavior accordingly. Outcome processing can be studied by using its electrophysiological signatures—that is, the feedback-related negativity (FRN) and the P300. A prominent reinforcement-learning model predicts an FRN on negative prediction errors, as well as implying a role for the FRN in learning and the adaptation of behavior. However, these predictions have recently been challenged. Notably, studies so far have used tasks in which the outcomes have been contingent on the response. In these paradigms, the need to adapt behavioral responses is present only for negative, not for positive feedback. The goal of the present study was to investigate the effects of positive as well as negative violations of expectancy on FRN amplitudes, without the usual confound of behavioral adjustments. A reversal-learning task was employed in which outcome value and outcome expectancy were orthogonalized; that is, both positive and negative outcomes were equally unexpected. The results revealed a double dissociation, with effects of valence but not expectancy on the FRN and, conversely, effects of expectancy but not valence on the P300. While FRN amplitudes were largest for negative-outcome trials, irrespective of outcome expectancy, P300 amplitudes were largest for unexpected-outcome trials, irrespective of outcome valence. These FRN effects were interpreted to reflect an evaluation along a good–bad dimension, rather than reflecting a negative prediction error or a role in behavioral adaptation. By contrast, the P300 reflects the updating of information relevant for behavior in a changing context.     

Effects of punishment on response latency in extraverts

Previous findings indicate that in comparison to introverts, extraverts are prone to form responses that are resistant to interruption by punishment. Because the tendency to stop and reflect following punishment may be crucial for subsequent learning, the present study was designed to examine differences between introverts' and extraverts' reactions to punishment using response latency on the trial following punishment as the dependent variable. Sixty-six extraverted and 66 introverted male undergraduates performed a pattern-matching task in which they received noncontingent 50% success and 50% failure feedback under three incentive conditions including reward only, punishment only, or both. As predicted, a significant interaction was found in the both condition, reflecting the tendency of extraverts to respond more quickly and introverts more slowly following punishment feedback than following reward feedback. No significant effects were found in the other two conditions; however, a tendency was noted for extraverts to respond more quickly overall when only reward was given. A second experiment using reward-only and punishment-only feedback replicated this finding and yielded a significant interaction of Group X Condition. The results indicate that in contrast to introverts, extraverts are activated by the availability of reward and, paradoxically, that punishment may facilitate rather than interrupt extraverts' reward seeking behavior.     

奖惩对行为抑制能力和自主生理活动影响的时效性

将45名被试随机分配为奖励组、惩罚组和对照组, 实验进程按时间发展过程被分为五阶段, 采用停止信号任务探讨奖惩刺激对行为抑制能力和自主生理活动影响的时效性。结果显示：奖惩刺激对行为反应时和抑制失败率影响仅在第二、三阶段差异显著, 对心率影响的显著差异在第三阶段结束、而对皮电和指温影响的显著差异仍持续到第五阶段。结果表明：奖惩刺激对行为的抑制作用具有时效性, 有效时间内表现为仅奖励能提高行为抑制能力; 奖惩刺激对心率的影响具有时效性, 但对其它生理指标的影响则未显示出时效性。     

反馈负波及其理论解释

反馈负波（feedback related negativity, FRN）是由代表行为错误或失去金钱等负性反馈刺激诱发的一种脑电波成分,出现在刺激呈现后250~300ms左右,偶极子源定位发现这一成分产生于前扣带回附近。对于FRN的功能意义的解释主要有强化学习理论和情绪动机假说,前者认为FRN反映的是神经系统对反馈刺激的认知加工过程,而后者认为FRN反映的是对情绪动机意义的评价过程。两种理论框架下还有一些目前研究仍待解决的问题,可能是未来研究的方向