Word substitution errors in a speeded picture-word task

Using a speeded-naming variant of the picture-word task, we found that word substitution errors can be elicited in the laboratory. In this variant of the task, participants often responded by saying the word instead of the picture's name. Such word substitution errors are interesting because they allow the evaluation of the relative merits of two broad classes of word production models. We obtained evidence in support of interactive models of word production. In addition, the error data presented evidence that speeded naming taps a late, name retrieval process and that picture naming is semantically mediated.     

Constraints on strategy construction in a speeded discrimination task

In three experiments, subjects reported the identity of a word (above or below) that appeared above or below a fixation point. On some trials, a cue presented 100, 200, 400, 600, 800, or 1,000 msec before the word indicated the relation between position and identity (i.e., whether the dimensions were compatible, e.g., above/above and below/below, or conflicted, e.g., above/below and below/above). On the other trials, the cue was withheld (Experiment 2) or it bore no information about the relation between dimensions (Experiment 1 and 3). In each experiment, the cue reduced reaction time below the level of no-cue or neutral-cue controls, indicating strategic use of the relation between dimensions. Experiments 1 and 2 manipulated the number of potential cues that could occur in a block. A stronger cuing effect was found when one cue could occur (Experiment 2) than when two cues could occur (Experiment 1). Experiment 3 manipulated practice; it revealed that with practice the cuing effect reached asymptote at shorter delays. The asymptote itself did not change. Experiment 4 showed that cue-delay effects were independent of warning interval (warning interval and cue delay confounded in Experiment 1, 2, and 3). The experiments demonstrate construction and utilization of strategies; they show that construction is sensitive to constraints imposed by the subject's goals and abilities and by the structure of the task environment.     

Using PPT to account for randomness in perception

According to many theories of decision making, of which signal detection theory is the most prominent, randomness is the main factor responsible for imperfect performance. These theories imply that correcting for attenuation due to randomness should result in perfect scores as long as the participants use nonextreme decision criteria. On the basis of a recent advance termed potential performance theory (Trafimow & Rice, Psychological Review 115:447-462, 2008), we performed auditory and visual detection experiments and corrected the scores for attenuation. Most participants in both experiments tended to perform at a less-than-perfect level, even after their scores were corrected. The findings demonstrate that at least one systematic factor influences detection that is not included in signal detection theory.     

A speeded coding task using a computer-based mouse response

This study assessed whether a speeded coding task that used a computer-based mouse response (CBMR) format was a measure of general processing speed (Gs). By analyzing the task within a network of tasks representing both traditional Gs tests and reaction time tasks, it was shown that a CBMR test can be used to measure the same construct as traditional paper-and-pencil (PP) tests and that this response format does not introduce variance associated with psychomotor performance. Differences between PP and CBMR formats were observed, and it is argued that these may provide information on individual differences in performance not available from traditional coding tests.     

Costs and benefits of strategy construction in a speeded discrimination task

The costs and benefits of constructing and utilizing a strategy for performing a speeded discrimination task were assessed in terms of time and mental resources. The strategy involved using information about the position a word occupied in order to respond to its identity more rapidly. The resources used to construct and utilize the strategy were assessed from responses to probes presented at various times during the task. In Experiment 1, the probe required a manual response, whereas in Experiment 2, the probe required a vocal response. Strategy construction interfered with the probe task in Experiment 1 but not in Experiment 2, suggesting that strategy construction required resources specific to the manual response system. There was also some evidence that strategy construction required general resources, but the evidence for specific resources was much stronger. The findings are consistent with our previous ideas about how the strategy is represented (Logan, 1980a; Logan & Zbrodoff, 1979). The different results with different responses to the probes point out important limitations on previous studies of probe interference and of cost-benefit analysis, which each focused on a single dimension of cost and benefit. The differences suggest that a multiple-resources approach to probe interference and cost-benefit analysis might be more appropriate.     

Two types of word superiority effects in a speeded matching task

Two experiments examined unitization in word and nonword four-letter sequences and word superiority effects (WSE) usingsame-different reaction time tasks. Stimuli consisted of letters presented directly above a subset of letters within four-letter sequences (e.g., \(\mathop {ABCD}\limits^{ABC} \) ). Probes either matched the sequence letters or differed in a single letter, and all possible probe configurations were used as stimuli. When complex probe configurations were matched as rapidly as single-letter probes, it was taken as evidence suggestive of possible multiletter unitization. Results indicated that a WSE occurred simultaneously with apparent unitization differences between word and nonword contexts only when entire four-letter sequences were matched. However, other WSEs were found, suggesting that familiarity affected processing efficiency of both postperceptual inference and perceptual analysis within the same task.     

External focus of attention improves performance in a speeded aiming task

Athletic skills are often executed better when learners focus attention externally (e.g., on the trajectory of the ball after a tennis serve), rather than internally (e.g., on the position of their arm) (e.g., Wulf, 2007a). The current study explored the effects of attention focus on learning of speeded responses, and examined whether these benefits hold for retention and transfer. Participants performed a computerized speeded aiming task while focusing on the direction of the cursor (external focus) versus the direction in which their hand moved the mouse (internal focus). One week later, half of the participants performed the same task again (retention), and half performed the task under conditions in which the mouse movements were changed (transfer). Relative to internal focus, external focus led to faster acquisition and better maintenance of speeded responses over the retention interval.     

Investigating mental representation of order with a speeded probed recall task

We compare three models of representation of item order in a verbal STM task: item-item associations, item-position associations, and primacy gradient. A speeded probed recall task is used, in which a list of words is presented, immediately followed by a probe; participants must report as fast as possible the word that was in the probed position. In the number probe condition, a digit is presented and one must say the word in that position. In the word probe condition, the probe is an item of the list and participants must say the immediately following item. Response times (RTs) are analyzed according to probe type and position. The three models imply different predictions about RTs as a function of serial order in the two conditions. Our results suggest a serial, self-terminating search from the beginning of the list to the target position, except for the final position, which is directly accessible. The item-item and item-position association models are ruled out; the primacy gradient model accounts satisfactorily for our results, except for the finding of a larger recency effect with a number probe. Alternative interpretations are also discussed.     

Relation of repetition effect and response programming in a speeded choice task.

The present study tested the hypothesis that the repetition effect occurs during response programming. The choice reaction-time to initiate the second of two responses was examined when two consecutive responses were the same or different in their kinematics and force characteristics and repeated for two different stimuli. 12 subjects were required to react and produce the sequence of same or different force by squeezing a handle as quickly and accurately as possible after the first (auditory) and the second (visual) reaction signals. The response-stimulus interval was set at 500 msec. The choice reaction-time to initiate the second response was significantly shorter for the same-force condition than for the different-force and control conditions. This result indicates that the repetition effect originates in a speedup in response programming rather than response selection or perceptual identification. This finding was discussed in terms of bypassing a response-programming stage.     

Potential performance theory (PPT): Describing a methodology for analyzing task performance

Based on potential performance theory (PPT), a methodological paradigm is developed that allows for individual-level analyses. The proposed methodology distinguishes among observed performance, strategy, and consistency, with the idea that changes in observed performance can be caused by changes in strategy or consistency. Equations are presented that allow the computation of strategy and consistency scores for groups and individuals, with the goal of enabling researchers to find the reasons why performance improves or does not improve. More specifically, people may (1) develop better strategies, (2) use them more consistently, (3) both, or (4) neither. It is even possible to have strategy—consistency trade-offs, as individuals focus on one at the expense of the other. Data obtained from an experiment illustrate these possibilities.     

Potential performance theory (PPT): a general theory of task performance applied to morality

People can use a variety of different strategies to perform tasks and these strategies all have two characteristics in common. First, they can be evaluated in comparison with either an absolute or a relative standard. Second, they can be used at varying levels of consistency. In the present article, the authors develop a general theory of task performance called potential performance theory (PPT) that distinguishes between observed scores and true scores that are corrected for inconsistency (i.e., potential scores). In addition, they argue that any kind of improvement to task performance, whatever it may be, works by influencing either task strategies, which comprise all nonrandom components that are relevant to the task, or the consistency with which strategies are used. In the current study, PPT is used to demonstrate how task strategies and the consistencies with which they are used impact actual performance in the domain of morality. These conclusions are extended to other domains of task performance.     

Assessing automaticity in audiovisual speech integration: evidence from the speeded classification task

The McGurk effect is usually presented as an example of fast, automatic, multisensory integration. We report a series of experiments designed to directly assess these claims. We used a syllabic version of the speeded classification paradigm, whereby response latencies to the first (target) syllable of spoken word-like stimuli are slowed down when the second (irrelevant) syllable varies from trial to trial. This interference effect is interpreted as a failure of selective attention to filter out the irrelevant syllable. In Experiment 1 we reproduced the syllabic interference effect with bimodal stimuli containing auditory as well as visual lip movement information, thus confirming the generalizability of the phenomenon. In subsequent experiments we were able to produce (Experiment 2) and to eliminate (Experiment 3) syllabic interference by introducing 'illusory' (McGurk) audiovisual stimuli in the irrelevant syllable, suggesting that audiovisual integration occurs prior to attentional selection in this paradigm.     

Strategic control in word reading: evidence from speeded responding in the tempo-naming task

To investigate strategic control over response initiation in word reading, the authors introduce the tempo-naming task. Relative to baseline performance in the standard-naming task, participants were induced to respond with faster latencies, shorter durations, and lower levels of accuracy by instructing them to time response initiation with an experimentally controlled tempo. The tempo response cue attenuated stimulus effects, and as faster tempos reduced latencies, the number of spelling-sound errors remained constant, whereas the number of word, nonword, and articulatory errors increased. To explain these results, the authors propose input gain as a mechanism of control over processing speed. The experimenters sketch how input gain could account for the current results as well as for the results from stimulus-blocking experiments testing the route emphasis and time criterion hypotheses of strategic control.     

Reaction time inconsistency in a spatial stroop task: age-related differences through childhood and adulthood

Age-related differences in inconsistency of reaction time (RT) across the life span were examined on a task with differing levels of demand on executive control. A total of 546 participants, aged 5 to 76 years, completed a spatial Stroop task that permitted observations under three conditions (congruent, incongruent, and neutral) according to the correspondence between the required response (based on stimulus direction) and stimulus location. An interference effect was observed across all ages. Analyses of neutral condition data replicated previous research demonstrating RT inconsistency follows a U-shaped developmental curve across the life span. The relationship between age and inconsistency, however, depended on condition: inconsistency in the congruent condition was higher than inconsistency in both the neutral and incongruent conditions across middle-aged groups. Reaction time inconsistency may reflect processing efficiency that is maximal in young adulthood and may also be sensitive to fluctuations in performance that reflect momentarily highly efficient responding.     

Using verification feedback to correct errors made on a multiple-choice test

A key educational challenge is how to correct students' errors and misconceptions so that they do not persist. Simply labelling an answer as correct or incorrect on a short-answer test (verification feedback) does not improve performance on later tests; error correction requires receiving answer feedback. We explored the generality of this conclusion and whether the effectiveness of verification feedback depends on the type of test with which it is paired. We argue that, unlike for short-answer tests, learning whether one's multiple-choice selection is correct or incorrect should help participants narrow down the possible answers and identify specific lures as false. To test this proposition we asked participants to answer a series of general knowledge multiple-choice questions. They received no feedback, answer feedback, or verification feedback, and then took a short-answer test immediately and two days later. Verification feedback was just as effective as answer feedback for maintaining correct answers. Importantly, verification feedback allowed learners to correct more of their errors than did no feedback, although it was not as effective as answer feedback. Overall, verification feedback conveyed information to the learner, which has both practical and theoretical implications.     

Using verification feedback to correct errors made on a multiple-choice test

A key educational challenge is how to correct students’ errors and misconceptions so that they do not persist. Simply labelling an answer as correct or incorrect on a short-answer test (verification feedback) does not improve performance on later tests; error correction requires receiving answer feedback. We explored the generality of this conclusion and whether the effectiveness of verification feedback depends on the type of test with which it is paired. We argue that, unlike for short-answer tests, learning whether one's multiple-choice selection is correct or incorrect should help participants narrow down the possible answers and identify specific lures as false. To test this proposition we asked participants to answer a series of general knowledge multiple-choice questions. They received no feedback, answer feedback, or verification feedback, and then took a short-answer test immediately and two days later. Verification feedback was just as effective as answer feedback for maintaining correct answers. Importantly, verification feedback allowed learners to correct more of their errors than did no feedback, although it was not as effective as answer feedback. Overall, verification feedback conveyed information to the learner, which has both practical and theoretical implications.     

Implicit phonetic symbolism in voicing of consonants and visual lightness using Garner's speeded classification task

The present study examines implicit phonetic symbolism which posits that arbitrary linguistic sound is related to certain aspects of characteristics of other modalities, such as color, touch, or emotion. In consonant discrimination and lightness discrimination using Garner's speeded classification paradigm, spoken sounds (voiced/voiceless consonants) and lightness of visual stimuli (black/white squares) were systematically varied to assess cross-modal interactions. Congruent audio-visual pairs (voiced consonants and black, and between voiceless consonants and white) facilitated consonant discrimination. In lightness discrimination, no congruent facilitation or congruence effect was observed. These results indicated that cross-modal interactions in implicit phonetic symbolism can be found in correlations between linguistic spoken sounds and visual lightness.     

Preparation for speeded action as a psychophysiological concept

Mental preparation aids performance and induces multiple physiological changes that should inform concepts of preparation. To date, however, these changes have been interpreted as being due to a global preparatory process (e.g., attention or alertness). The authors review psychophysiological and performance investigations of preparation. Concepts of the central regulation of action offer an integrative framework for understanding the psychophysiology of preparation. If people process multiple streams of information concurrently, then preparatory processing requires a form of supervisory attention- central regulation to maintain unity of action. This concept is consistent with existing psychophysiological results and links them to current views of information processing. Conversely, psychophysiological measures may provide indices to test concepts within theories of the central regulation of action.     

Using a paired-associate learning task to assess parent-child phenotypic similarity

The fact of uncertain paternity has led some researchers to hypothesize that children should more closely resemble their fathers than their mothers. The evidence in support of this hypothesis is mixed, partly because the procedures used to measure perceived phenotypic similarity may not be sensitive enough to detect small effects and partly because comparisons are made between fathers and mothers rather than random control groups. In the present experiment the viability of using a paired-associate learning paradigm to investigate parent-child phenotypic similarity is demonstrated using 15 stimulus sets of colored photographs picturing two adults and one child. Using a 2 x 2 between subjects analysis of variance for total errors across learning trials, evidence indicated genetic relatedness for both mothers and fathers influences perceived resemblance and that association of male facial features with those of children, whether paternal or not, are learned more quickly than female facial features. While the significance of genetic relatedness to facial similarity was expected, the overall sex difference was not. However, the additive combination of these variables, genetic relatedness and maleness may explain why children seem to more closely resemble their fathers.     

Using perceptrons to explore the reorientation task

The reorientation task is a paradigm that has been used extensively to study the types of information used by humans and animals to navigate in their environment. In this task, subjects are reinforced for going to a particular location in an arena that is typically rectangular in shape. The subject then has to find that location again after being disoriented, and possibly after changes have been made to the arena. This task is used to determine the geometric and featural cues that can be used to reorient the agent in the arena. The purpose of the present paper is to present several simulation results that show that a simple neural network, a perceptron, can be used to generate many of the traditional findings that have been obtained using the reorientation task. These results suggest that reorientation task regularities can be explained without appealing to a geometric module that is a component of spatial processing.