Do men and women use different tactics to cope with the embarrassment of buying condoms?

It has been proposed that people cope with the embarrassment of acquiring condoms using a variety of tactics, such as buying from a sales clerk of the same gender or buying additional products. However, the actual use and efficacy of these coping mechanisms have not been rigorously evaluated. This research investigates three specific questions related to coping with embarrassment: (R1) Do people prefer cashiers of the same gender when buying condoms because it helps them cope with embarrassment or because of the similarity‐attraction effect? (R2) When multiple coping mechanisms are available, do people use more than one at a time? And (R3) Do men and women prefer different coping tactics? Using an experimental design, Study 1 investigates R1 and finds support for both explanations. Studies 2 and 3 use field and lab experiments, respectively, to investigate R2 and R3. The findings indicate that people only use one coping tactic at a time and that men and women have a different preference for coping tactics. Women prefer coping tactics that mask condom acquisition, while men prefer social–emotional support tactics. Furthermore, discrepancies between the field experiment and lab experiments indicate that people underestimate the influence of embarrassment on their actual behavior.     

Gender and coping: The dual-axis model of coping

Examined a dual-axis model of coping that included both action (active vs. passive) and social dimensions (prosocial vs. antisocial) of coping strategies among a combined sample of students and community residents. We developed an assessment device to represent the model and allow investigation. Mixed support for the model and instrument were noted. Women were more prosocial than men in their coping, but no less active. Men were more likely to use antisocial and aggressive, but less assertive coping strategies than women. More prosocial, action coping strategies were also more likely to be related to greater sense of mastery and more liberal gender-role orientation. Antisocial and passive strategies tended to be related to lower mastery and more traditional gender-role orientation. Active coping was related to lower emotional distress for men and women, but both prosocial and antisocial coping were related to greater emotional distress for men, suggesting that men may have a narrower band of beneficial coping strategies than do women. This research was made possible, in part, by a grant from the National Institute of Health (R01-HD24901-01) and by support of the Kent State Applied Psychology Center, which was established through the support of the Ohio Board of Regents.     

The Effect of Intracouple Coping Concordance on Psychological and Marital Distress in Infertility Patients

The effect of intracouple coping concordance on psychological and marital distress was examined in a sample of 46 couples undergoing different stages of infertility treatment. Results indicate that the effect of coping similarity within couples is dependent on both the type of coping examined and the stage of the stressor. Specifically, for women the use of high levels of task-oriented coping by their partners and themselves is associated with the highest level of marital satisfaction. The findings also indicate that the use of high emotion-oriented coping by both partners is associated with the most psychological distress for men. Finally, the results show that marital satisfaction among women undergoing late stage treatment is highest in couples where the males are using low levels of emotion-oriented coping. Interestingly, the least satisfaction for women is evident when the woman is using less emotion-oriented coping while her partner is using more, rather than when both partners are using more emotion-oriented coping strategies. Clinical implications of the findings are discussed.     

The Body Image Quality of Life Inventory: further validation with college men and women

The Body Image Quality of Life Inventory (BIQLI) was recently developed to quantify both the positive and negative effects of body image on one’s psychosocial quality of life. The current study was conducted to further validate the measure with both men and women and to evaluate its psychometric reliability and validity among college students (N=603). Results confirmed that the 19-item measure was an internally consistent and unidimensional measure for both sexes. A significantly more favorable body image quality of life was reported by men than women, by African American than White women, and by women with lower body mass indices. Significant body image correlates included body image evaluation, investment, and situational dysphoria. A better body image quality of life was also related to higher self-esteem, optimism, and social support for both sexes and to less eating disturbance among women. The potential utility of this construct and unique instrument in further research, especially with medical populations, is discussed.     

Agency and Communion Related to Mental Health in Japanese Young Adults

Based on Bakan’s (1966) theory, Helgeson (1994) presented a conceptual model of the relationships of biological sex, agency, and communion with psychological and physical well-being. This study was designed to examine the relationships of mitigated and unmitigated agency (M, M-) /communion (F, F-) with mental health in Japanese young adults. Participants were 602 (247 men, 355 women) undergraduate students and vocational school students in Japan. The average age of the participants was 20.0 years (SD=4.1). The results showed that communion (F) was positively associated with social support, unmitigated communion (F-) was strongly and positively associated with dysphoria for both men and women, unmitigated agency (M-) was also positively associated with dysphoria for women, and agency (M) was negatively associated with dysphoria for women. Both M and F were positively associated and F- was negatively associated with self-esteem for both men and women. M may moderate F-, and social support may moderate M-, for women. Thus our findings partially supported Helgeson’s model.     

Coping with peer stressors and associated dysphoria: Acculturation differences among Chinese-American children

The purpose of this study was to explore the role of acculturation in coping with stress among 264 Chinese-American children. The results confirmed that the subjects used a variety of coping strategies including diversion, suppression, problem solving, minimization, and retaliation and that certain coping strategies influenced the dysphoria experienced as a result of peer stress. High acculturated children used retaliation significantly more often than their low acculturated counterparts and retaliation was found to be associated with less dysphoria for the high acculturated group. In contrast, low acculturated children who utilized suppression tended to report less dysphoria. Contrary to the hypothesis that general self worth would reduce the relationship between peer stressors and dysphoria, it had no bearing on the association for either acculturated group. The hypothesis that greater perceived social competence would lessen the association between peer stressors and dysphoria also failed to be supported by the data. In fact, for the high acculturation group higher social competence was actually associated with more reported dysphoria. In general, the results suggested that the adaptiveness of particular coping strategies may be influenced by acculturation level and that social competence plays a complicated role in the stress and coping process. Implications for counsellors are discussed.     

Gender differences over time in medical school stressors,anxiety, and the sense of coherence

Gender differences in the perception of medical school stressors, trait anxiety, and the sense of coherence were investigated in a longitudinal study in an Israeli medical school. The overall stressor score increased for both sexes from orientation to the second year of studies. The increase in the stressor score among women was due primarily to their increasing concern about professional status issues; for men, the academic demands factor contributed most to their increased overall stressor score. Trait anxiety increased and the sense of coherence decreased over time for both sexes. The gender difference in anxiety was significant in the first two stages, but disappeared in the third stage, indicating that although men had lower scores at all stages, their scores increased relatively more than women's over time. The findings suggest that the stressors of medical education have a negative effect on two personality resources needed to deal with life's demands.     

Coping with job stress and burnout in the human services

A mail survey of 141 human service workers investigated the effects of coping on psychological strain and "burnout" produced by job stress. The survey assessed job stressors and coping strategies with open-ended questions and measured strain using closed-ended alienation, satisfaction, and symptom scales. Because previous research suggested that individual coping responses do not alleviate strain produced by job stress, the survey elicited information on group coping (social support) and on coping strategies initiated by agencies. Job stress was associated with high levels of strain, and group coping with low levels, but individual responses had little effect. Although workers identified many strategies that agencies could use to reduce stress and strain, actual use of such strategies was slight. Because men and women worked in the same jobs, no sex differences in individual coping were predicted and none were found; women, however, reported more social support than men. There was no evidence for moderating (interaction) effects of stress and coping on strain.     

Nonwork-to-work spillover: A more balanced view of the experiences and coping of professional women and men

A more balanced view of nonwork-to-work spillover was advanced here. The concentration of research on the negative side may serve to support some damaging assumptions about professional women. A sample of 221 experienced managers indicated how parenting, community work, and recreation affected work both positively and negatively, and the extent they used certain coping strategies. Women comprised 35% of the sample and ethnic minorities comprised 18%. The managers agreed more strongly with statements about positive nonwork-to-work spillover than with those about the negative side. Women and men reported largely the same levels of nonwork involvement, time commitment, satisfaction, positive spillover, and use of the coping strategies. Compared to men, women did report lower negative spillover overall, and greater use of the strategies when they were parents. The findings suggest that employers should be less concerned with how active women are in nonwork, and more concerned with how well both men and women manage their various life domains.     

Sex differences in coping with career decision making

Sex differences in coping with career decision making were investigated among 247 undergraduate students. Men and women differed on three of four coping factors. Men scored significantly higher on Self-Efficacy Behavior (p < .05) while women scored higher than men on Reactive Behavior (p < .01) and Support-Seeking Behavior (p < .001) strategies. Coping factors were investigated in relation to career decidedness. Although men and women differed on the coping factors, the pattern of relationships between coping and career indecision was virtually identical for both sexes. Self-Efficacy Behavior (Factor 1) was negatively related to career indecision while Symptom-Altering/Avoidant Behavior (Factor 2) was positively related to indecision for both men and women.     

Sex differences in the response to emotional distraction: an event-related fMRI investigation

Evidence has suggested that women have greater emotional reactivity than men. However, it is unclear whether these differences in basic emotional responses are also associated with differences in emotional distractibility, and what the neural mechanisms that implement differences in emotional distractibility between women and men are. Functional MRI recording was used in conjunction with a working memory (WM) task, with emotional distraction (angry faces) presented during the interval between the memoranda and the probes. First, we found an increased impact of emotional distraction among women in trials associated with high-confidence responses, in the context of overall similar WM performance in women and men. Second, women showed increased sensitivity to emotional distraction in brain areas associated with “hot” emotional processing, whereas men showed increased sensitivity in areas associated with “cold” executive processing, in the context of overall similar patterns of response to emotional distraction in women and men. Third, a sex-related dorsal–ventral hemispheric dissociation emerged in the lateral PFC related to coping with emotional distraction, with women showing a positive correlation with WM performance in left ventral PFC, and men showing similar effects in the right dorsal PFC. In addition to extending to men results that have previously been reported in women, by showing that both sexes engage mechanisms that are similar overall in response to emotional distraction, the present study identifies sex differences in both the response to and coping with emotional distraction. These results have implications for understanding sex differences in the susceptibility to affective disorders, in which basic emotional responses, emotional distractibility, and coping abilities are altered.     

Assessing gender differences in the relationship between religious coping responses and alcohol consumption

The purpose of this study is to see if the use of religious coping responses is associated with alcohol intake. In addition, tests are conducted to see if the relationship between religion and alcohol use varies by gender. Data from a recent nationwide survey (N?=?2173) indicate that greater use of religious coping responses is associated with less alcohol consumption. The findings further reveal that even though women use religious coping responses more often than men, the relationship between the use of religious coping responses and alcohol consumption is stronger for men than for women. This suggests that, with respect to alcohol consumption, men may benefit more from using religious coping responses than women. The theoretical implications of these results are discussed.     

Initial Encounters of Young Men and Women: Impressions and Disclosure Estimates

The purpose of this study was to explore the expectation that, in conversations between unacquainted men and women, men would disclose more than women and would create a positive impression in so doing. In 8-min, relatively unstructured conversations, both men and women (N=301) perceived themselves and their partners as disclosing approximately the same amount. For both sexes, the more their partners disclosed, the more favorably they rated their partners on social attractiveness and positive attributes. Moreover, both sexes believed that the more they disclosed themselves, the more positively their partners evaluated them. However, the strength of this relationship was significantly stronger for men than for women. Neither sex conformed to the expectation that men should disclose more, but both may have believed to some extent that their partners were evaluating them in accord with this expectation.     

The association between gender, coping style and whiplash related symptoms in sufferers of whiplash associated disorder

The aim of the present study was to examine specifically whether the relationship between coping style and symptoms of whiplash injury change as a function of gender. A total of 1709 sufferers of whiplash associated disorder (1349 women, 360 men) belonging to the Danish Society for Polio, Traffic and Accident Victims completed questionnaires measuring demographic and psychological factors (including coping style), and symptoms of whiplash trauma (including pain). Men and women were not found to differ significantly in their use of coping strategies, however emotion focused coping strategies were related significantly more strongly to whiplash related symptoms in men compared to women. Women were found to display more symptoms related to whiplash injury compared to men. Possible reasons for the present findings are discussed in light of related research indicating mood as a potential moderating variable in the relationship between maladaptive coping style and degree of symptoms related to injury in men.     

Gender Differences in Drinking Motivations and Outcomes

To investigate gender differences in the dynaijiics of alcohol use, we gathered self-report data from male and female college students. Results of our experiment showed that dominance power motivations were correlated with negative drinking outcomes for both men and women; assertiveness power motivations were associated with negative outcomes only for women. For both sexes, a higher proportion of positive social motivations was associated with fewer negative drinking outcomes. We expect that, in addition to the more traditionally defined needs for dominance power shown to be important for drinking among men, women may use alcohol in relation to needs for assertiveness and self-expression.     

Religiousness and Religious Coping in a Secular Society: The Gender Perspective

Women are found to be more religious than men and more likely to use religious coping. Only few studies have explored religious gender differences in more secular societies. This population-based study comprised 3,000 Danish men and women (response rate 45 %) between 20 and 40 years of age. Information about demographics, religiousness and religious coping was obtained through a web-based questionnaire. We organized religiousness in the three dimensions: Cognition, Practice and Importance, and we assessed religious coping using the brief RCOPE questionnaire. We found substantial gender differences in both religiousness and religious coping. Nearly, 60 % of the women believed in some sort of spirit or in God compared to 40 % of the men. Generally, both men and women scored low on the RCOPE scale. However, for respondents reporting high levels of religiousness, the proportion of men who scored high in the RCOPE exceeded the proportion of women in using positive and especially negative coping strategies. Also, in a secular society, women are found to be more religious than men, but in a subset of the most religious respondents, men were more inclined to use religious coping. Further studies on religious coping in secular societies are required.     

Gender differences in drinking motivations and outcomes.

To investigate gender differences in the dynamics of alcohol use, we gathered self-reported data from male and female college students. Results of our experiment showed that dominance power motivations were correlated with negative drinking outcomes for both men and women; assertiveness power motivations were associated with negative outcomes only for women. For both sexes, a higher proportion of positive social motivations was associated with fewer negative drinking outcomes. We expect that, in addition to the more traditionally defined needs for dominance power shown to be important for drinking among men, women may use alcohol in relation to needs for assertiveness and self-expression.     

Effects of age and sex on reciprocal tapping performance

Using a reciprocal tapping task (Fitts's task), the speed and accuracy of small-amplitude motor movements of the hand were measured for 62 men and 84 women, 20 to 89 yr. of age. Men and women in their 20s and 30s performed similarly, although men in their 20s displayed a tendency to trade accuracy in favor of speed. Movement time increased noticeably for both men and women beginning with the 40s decade and continued to increase through the 80s decade. Error rates were lower for women than men and were relatively uniform for both men and women across all age decades past 30 yr. Older subjects of both sexes appeared to sacrifice speed (slowed down) to maintain accuracy on the task. The slope of the linear regression relating movement time to task difficulty was steeper for men than for women and increased more for men than women with advancing age, indicating that older men slowed down relatively more than older women on more difficult tasks.     

Gender differences in stress reactions: Women filling the gaps

Abstract

Competing hypotheses explaining gender differences in depression were compared in a one-year longitudinal study of parents of ill children in Israel. Women were found to have more depressed mood than men when their children were ill or well, but both men and women responded with increased depression when their child was ill. Women were more likely than men to be with an ill child at the hospital, even if employed, suggesting role overload. Women did not report fewer personal or social resources than men, indicating that poverty of resources could not explain sex differences on depression. Nor did women use their resources less effectively than did men. Women were less depressed the greater their intimacy with their spouse and friends, but at all levels of intimacy were more depressed than men. Men, in contrast, isolated themselves from social support at the time of their child's illness and it was argued that men might be avoiding stress contagion. The importance of examining differential responding of men and women to stressors that have common meaning for both sexes was discussed.     

Coping with work and family: How do dual‐earners interact?

Juggling the demands of both work and family has become increasingly difficult, especially for dual‐earner households; nevertheless, families have developed strategies to deal with work‐family challenges. This paper uses couple level analyses (APIM models) with 100 dual‐earner couples to provide insight about partners' mutual influence on the use of work‐family coping strategies. The results show that women's use of coping strategies is more associated with work‐family conflict and work‐family enrichment than men's coping. In addition, using partner coping, having a positive attitude towards multiple roles, using planning and management skills and avoiding having to cut back on professional responsibilities is associated with better outcomes (more enrichment and less conflict). Surprisingly, the use of childcare facilities is associated with women's conflict and partner effects were only found concerning the use of management and planning skills. These skills, however, have distinct effects for men and women's outcomes: their use by men reduces their own conflict but increases their wives', while their use by women decreases their own conflict and increases their own and their partner's enrichment. These results point to the fact that gender roles continue to be a hallmark of work‐family issues. Our design and results point out the need for new interventions that take couple interdependences into account.