Is masked priming modulated by memory load? A test of the automaticity of masked identity priming in lexical decision

One of the key assumptions of the masked priming lexical decision task (LDT) is that primes are processed without requiring attentional resources. Here, we tested this assumption by presenting a dual-task manipulation to increase memory load and measure the change in masked identity priming on the targets in the LDT. If masked priming does not require attentional resources, increased memory load should have no influence on the magnitude of the observed identity priming effects. We conducted two LDT experiments, using a within-subjects design, to investigate the effect of memory load (via a concurrent matching task Experiment 1 and a concurrent search task in Experiment 2) on masked identity priming. Results showed that the magnitude of masked identity priming on word targets was remarkably similar under high and low memory load. Thus, these experiments provide empirical evidence for the automaticity assumption of masked identity priming in the LDT.     

Involvement of dorsal hippocampal α-adrenergic receptors in the effect of scopolamine on memory retrieval in inhibitory avoidance task

The present study evaluated the possible role of α-adrenergic receptors of the dorsal hippocampus on scopolamine-induced amnesia and scopolamine state-dependent memory in adult male Wistar rats. The animals were bilaterally implanted with chronic cannulae in the CA1 regions of the dorsal hippocampus, trained in a step-through type inhibitory avoidance task, and tested 24 h after training to measure step-through latency. Results indicate that post-training or pre-test intra-CA1 administration of scopolamine (1 and 2 μg/rat) dose-dependently reduced the step-through latency, showing an amnestic response. Amnesia produced by post-training scopolamine (2 μg/rat) was reversed by pre-test administration of the scopolamine that is due to a state-dependent effect. Interestingly, pre-test intra-CA1 microinjection of α1-adrenergic agonist, phenylephrine (1 and 2 μg/rat) or α2-adrenergic agonist, clonidine improved post-training scopolamine (2 μg/rat)-induced retrieval impairment. Furthermore, pre-test intra-CA1 microinjection of phenylephrine (0.25, 0.5 and 1 μg/rat) or clonidine (0.25, 0.5 and 1 μg/rat) with an ineffective dose of scopolamine (0.25 μg/rat), synergistically improved memory performance impaired by post-training scopolamine. On the other hand, pre-test injection of α1-receptors antagonist prazosin (1 and 2 μg/rat) or α2-receptors antagonist yohimbine (1 and 2 μg/rat) prevented the restoration of memory by pre-test scopolamine. It is important to note that pre-test intra-CA1 administration of the same doses of prazosin or yohimbine, alone did not affect memory retrieval. These results suggest that α1- and α2-adrenergic receptors of the dorsal hippocampal CA1 regions may play an important role in scopolamine-induced amnesia and scopolamine state-dependent memory.     

Post-retrieval disruption of a cocaine conditioned place preference by systemic and intrabasolateral amygdala β2- and α1-adrenergic antagonists

Previous work has demonstrated post-retrieval impairment in associative learning paradigms, including those mediated by drugs of abuse, using nonspecific β-adrenergic receptor (β-AR) antagonists. Remarkably little is known about the role of the specific β-AR subtypes, or other adrenergic receptors, in these effects. The current study examined the effects of β₁ and β₂, as well as α₁-adrenergic receptor antagonism following retrieval of a cocaine conditioned place preference (CPP). We found that rats administered the β₂ antagonist ICI 118,551 (8 mg/kg intraperitoneal [IP]) or the α₁ antagonist prazosin (1 mg/kg IP) following a drug-free test for CPP showed attenuated preference during a subsequent test, while the β₁ antagonist betaxolol (5 or 10 mg/kg IP) and a lower dose of prazosin (0.3 mg/kg IP) had no effect. Furthermore, post-test microinfusion of ICI 118,551 (6 nmol/side) or prazosin (0.5 nmol/side) into the basolateral amygdala (BLA) also impaired a subsequent preference. Systemic or intra-BLA ICI 118,551 or prazosin administered to rats in their home cages, in the absence of a preference test, had no effect on CPP 24 h later. ICI 118,551 also attenuated the FOS response in the BLA induced by the CPP test. These results are the first to demonstrate a role for α₁- and β₂-specific adrenergic mechanisms in post-retrieval memory processes. These systemic and site-specific injections, as well as the FOS immunohistochemical analyses, implicate the importance of specific noradrenergic signaling mechanisms within the BLA in post-retrieval plasticity.Substantial evidence indicates that information acquired during a learning event is initially plastic, at which time memory retention can be disrupted, but is strengthened by a time-dependent consolidation process (McGaugh 2000). Recent work has focused on retrieval-induced plasticity, a process by which changes in the retention of previously acquired information are possible. The notion of reconsolidation, one theoretical mechanism by which such changes may occur, suggests that a retrieved memory enters a labile state and is vulnerable to disruption (Sara 2000; Nader 2003). Although the theoretical mechanisms underlying reconsolidation remain unclear, the behavioral effects have been demonstrated across many different learning paradigms using a variety of pharmacological manipulations (for review, see Tronson and Taylor 2007; Diergaarde et al. 2008). Studies with aversive and appetitive preparations, including drug reward-mediated learning, have demonstrated that the noradrenergic system is important for these post-retrieval memory processes (Przybyslawski et al. 1999; Debiec and Ledoux 2004; Bernardi et al. 2006; Diergaarde et al. 2006; Robinson and Franklin 2007; Abrari et al. 2008; Fricks-Gleason and Marshall 2008; Milton et al. 2008). For example, using an animal model of cocaine-conditioned behaviors, Bernardi et al. (2006) demonstrated that systemic post-retrieval administration of propranolol impaired a subsequent conditioned place preference (CPP), suggesting that β-adrenergic receptors (β-ARs) play an important role in processes occurring following drug memory retrieval.However, most of what is known about the noradrenergic system in the memory processes that follow cued reminder trials comes from studies that use nonspecific β-AR antagonists, such as propranolol. As a consequence, several issues regarding ARs and post-retrieval memory processes remain unresolved. First, because propranolol has affinity for both β₁- and β₂-AR subtypes, it is unclear which subtype mediates these effects. To date, no studies have examined reconsolidation-like impairments using subtype-specific β-AR antagonists, which is important because more specific medications may be equally efficacious with less adverse effects. Second, no studies to date have examined α-ARs regarding a potential role in reconsolidation-like effects. α-ARs—specifically α₁-ARs—have a demonstrated role in memory consolidation (Ferry et al. 1999a,b) and may also mediate post-retrieval processes. Third, although the BLA has had a demonstrated role in reconsolidation-like effects in numerous studies, the behavioral conditions during retrieval of drug-associated memories leading to gene expression within the basolateral amygdala (BLA) have not clearly been defined. Specifically, in the CPP paradigm used here, it is unclear whether exposure to a cocaine cue alone will induce gene expression or whether a preference for the drug-associated environment needs to be expressed for BLA involvement (Franklin and Druhan 2000; Miller and Marshall 2005).Understanding the role of specific adrenergic receptors in mediating post-retrieval memory processes is particularly important in drug-induced CPP. In humans, drug-associated stimuli can facilitate drug use (Gawin 1991; See 2005) or precipitate relapse following abstinence (O''Brien et al. 1992). Thus, pharmacotherapies targeting these memory processes would benefit from a clearer understanding of the specific receptors that mediate behavioral effects (Taylor et al. 2009).Here, we first examined the effects of systemic post-test β₁-, β₂-, and α₁-AR antagonism on cocaine CPP. We then focused on the BLA due to its involvement in reconsolidation-like effects in drug learning paradigms (e.g., Lee et al. 2005), employing microinfusions of AR antagonists and measuring FOS immunoreactivity (FOS-IR) to examine the BLA as a potential site of AR-mediated impairments.     

Does culture influence what and how we think? Effects of priming individualism and collectivism

Do differences in individualism and collectivism influence values, self-concept content, relational assumptions, and cognitive style? On the one hand, the cross-national literature provides an impressively consistent picture of the predicted systematic differences; on the other hand, the nature of the evidence is inconclusive. Cross-national evidence is insufficient to argue for a causal process, and comparative data cannot specify if effects are due to both individualism and collectivism, only individualism, only collectivism, or other factors (including other aspects of culture). To address these issues, the authors conducted a meta-analysis of the individualism and collectivism priming literature, with follow-up moderator analyses. Effect sizes were moderate for relationality and cognition, small for self-concept and values, robust across priming methods and dependent variables, and consistent in direction and size with cross-national effects. Results lend support to a situated model of culture in which cross-national differences are not static but dynamically consistent due to the chronic and moment-to-moment salience of individualism and collectivism. Examination of the unique effects of individualism and collectivism versus other cultural factors (e.g., honor, power) awaits the availability of research that primes these factors.     

Qualitative differences between conscious and nonconscious processing? On inverse priming induced by masked arrows

In general, both consciously and unconsciously perceived stimuli facilitate responses to following similar stimuli. However, masked arrows delay responses to following arrows. This inverse priming has been ascribed to inhibition of premature motor activation, more recently even to special processing of nonconsciously perceived material. Here, inverse priming depended on particular masks, was insensitive to contextual requirements for increased inhibition, and was constant across response speeds. Putative signs of motor inhibition in the electroencephalogram may as well reflect activation of the opposite response. Consequently, rather than profiting from inhibition of primed responses, the alternative response is directly primed by perceptual interactions of primes and masks. Thus there is no need to assume separate pathways for nonconscious and conscious processing.     

Characterization of room-temperature plastic deformation of ß-Si3N4 by atomic force microscopy and transmission electron microscopy

Dislocation microstructures induced by room-temperature microhardness tests have been investigated in silicon nitride. Surface analysis of the residual indent by atomic force microscopy reveals intragranular slip bands and demonstrates that room-temperature plastic deformation involves dislocation motion as well as cross-slip events. Cross-slip events have been found to occur between {1010} prismatic planes. Transmission electron microscopy shows that dislocations have a Burgers vector b = [0001] and are located along the screw direction. Based on these observations, specific dislocation core configurations are discussed.     

Does negative priming reflect inhibitory mechanisms? A review and integration of conflicting views

Negative priming has traditionally been viewed as a reflection of an inhibitory mechanism of attention. However, recent accounts have suggested that negative priming does not reflect inhibitory mechanisms. Rather, slowed reaction times on negative priming trials are either due to retrieval of incompatible response tags or of mismatching perceptual information, or due to extra processes needed to distinguish past from present information. In contrast, it is proposed that there is no firm evidence to discount inhibition models. In fact, although retrieval processes can be implicated in negative priming effects, understanding of these requires consideration of the inhibitory processes involved in selecting information for goal-directed behaviour.     

Effects of prime—target spatial separation and attentional deployment on masked repetition priming

In two masked repetition priming experiments with letter stimuli, the positions of prime and target stimuli were varied horizontally from fixation. Priming effects did not interact with position when prime and target location covaried (Experiment 1A) but diminished with increasing prime eccentricity when targets were always centrally located (Experiment 1B). Two accounts of this pattern of priming effects were proposed that postulate two different mechanisms over and above effects of visual acuity. The integration account postulates degree of separation of prime and target stimuli as the critical factor, and the attentional account postulates spatial attention as the critical factor. The results of Experiment 2, in which prime and target positions were manipulated orthogonally, were in favor of the attentional account. Repetition priming did not vary as a function of whether or not primes and targets appeared at the same location, but target processing was facilitated independently of priming when targets appeared at the same location as primes, especially in the right visual field.     

So what do you think of the organization? A contextual priming explanation for recruitment Web site characteristics as antecedents of job seekers’ organizational image perceptions

Although job seekers’ organizational image perceptions can influence attraction to recruiting organizations, little is known about how these perceptions are formed or modified. To address this research gap, the authors drew from research in social cognition theory and demonstrated that recruitment Web site characteristics influenced the development and modification of organizational image perceptions via a priming mechanism. Results of two studies showed that having technologically advanced Web site features and depicting racially diverse organizational members served as contextual primers and influenced participants’ organizational image perceptions. Results also revealed that participants’ familiarity with recruiting organizations moderated the effects of these Web site characteristics on several dimensions of organizational image such that effects were weaker for more familiar organizations. These findings suggest that organizations can manage job seekers’ organizational image perceptions through strategic recruitment Web site design; however, such attempts may be tempered by job seekers’ familiarity with the organization.     

Auditory spatial negative priming: What is remembered of irrelevant sounds and their locations?

The categorization and identification of previously ignored visual or auditory stimuli is typically slowed down—a phenomenon that has been called the negative priming effect and can be explained by the episodic retrieval of response-inadequate prime information and/or an inhibitory model. A similar after-effect has been found in visuospatial tasks: participants are slowed down in localizing a visual stimulus that appears at a previously ignored location. In the auditory modality, however, such an after-effect of ignoring a sound at a specific location has never been reported. Instead, participants are impaired in their localization performance when the sound at the previously ignored location changes identity, a finding which is compatible with the so-called feature-mismatch hypothesis. Here, we describe the properties of auditory spatial in contrast to visuospatial negative priming and report two experiments that specify the nature of this auditory after-effect. Experiment 1 shows that the detection of identity-location mismatches is a genuinely auditory phenomenon that can be replicated even when the sound sources are invisible. Experiment 2 reveals that the detection of sound-identity mismatches in the probe depends on the processing demands in the prime. This finding implies that the localization of irrelevant sound sources is not the inevitable consequence of processing the auditory prime scenario but depends on the difficulty of the target search process among distractor sounds.     

Explicit and implicit stereotype activation effects on memory: do age and awareness moderate the impact of priming?

Two studies examined the effects of implicit and explicit priming of aging stereotypes. Implicit primes had a significant effect on older adults' memory, with positive primes associated with greater recall than negative primes. With explicit primes, older adults were able to counteract the impact of negative stereotypes when the cues were relatively subtle, but blatant stereotype primes suppressed performance regardless of prime type. No priming effects under either presentation condition were obtained for younger adults, indicating that the observed implicit effects are specific to those for whom the stereotype is self-relevant. Findings emphasize the importance of social-situational factors in determining older adults' memory performance and contribute to the delineation of situations under which stereotypes are most influential.     

When does priming justice promote forgiveness? On the importance of distributive and procedural justice for self and others

Two studies show that thinking about justice can both enhance and impede forgiveness, depending on whether thoughts about distributive and procedural justice for self and others are activated. In Study 1 (n = 197), participants expressed more forgiveness towards a prior transgressor when primed to think about justice for self or procedural justice for others, and less forgiveness when primed to think about distributive justice for others. Study 2 (n = 231) used an alternate priming method and replicated these effects by inducing an interpersonal transgression and measuring forgiveness intentions, emotions and behavior. Study 2 also showed that priming justice influences forgiveness especially when the perceived severity of an interpersonal offense is high. The current research shows that activating justice cognitions can enhance or impinge on forgiveness in predictable ways. We discuss contributions to emerging justice theory, potential implications, and future directions.     

Social priming of dyslexia and reduction of the Stroop effect: What component of the Stroop effect is actually reduced?

Recently, Goldfarb, Aisenberg, and Henik (2011) showed that in a manual format of the Stroop task, dyslexia priming eliminates the normal magnitude of the interference-based Stroop-like findings otherwise exhibited by individuals participating in such research. Goldfarb et al. (2011) consequently concluded that the effect of word reading in a Stroop task (i.e., one automatic behavior) can be effectively controlled through an automatic instruction “do not read” (i.e., another automatic behavior). The present study further investigated these ideas by examining when and how dyslexia priming controls different processes involved in a Stroop task. To this end, the original finding was first replicated (Experiment 1) and subsequently extended to the vocal (instead of manual) response modality to examine whether previously reported eliminations of the Stroop effect persist with this response format (i.e., format producing larger Stroop effects). Since past work (e.g., Augustinova & Ferrand, 2012a; Brown, Joneleit et al., 2002; Ferrand & Augustinova, 2013) had suggested that various interventions were likely to reduce (rather than eliminate) the interference-based Stroop-like findings with vocal responses, a further aim of these experiments was to identify the component of these findings that dyslexia priming actually reduces. To this end, the effects of this intervention were examined in a more fine-grained variant of the Stroop task that distinguished between interference resulting from task-irrelevant processes involved in computing the lexical and semantic representations of the word (i.e., a written distractor to ignore) and task-relevant processes involved in the selection of a response (i.e., a color target to name) that are both involved in this task. In line with our past work (e.g., Augustinova & Ferrand, 2012a; Ferrand & Augustinova, 2013), the results of two experiments (Experiments 2 and 3) showed that in the vocal format, dyslexia priming reduces but does not eliminate the normal magnitude of the interference-based Stroop-like findings and that this reduction is solely due to the control of processes involved in the selection of a response (i.e., a color target to name) – processes that are known to be controllable in this format (Ferrand & Augustinova, 2013). Given that in this format, dyslexia priming had no effect on task-irrelevant processes involved in computing the lexical and semantic representations of a written distractor to be ignored – processes that are known to be automatic – further implications for the control of automatic processes via dyslexia priming are considered and an interpretation in terms of a unitary control mechanism for both the manual and vocal formats is proposed.     

Semantic and repetition priming effects for Deese/Roediger—McDermott (DRM) critical items and associates produced by DRM and unrelated study lists

Two lexical decision experiments investigated priming for a critical item (CI, sleep) and its related yoked associate (YA, blanket) when one had been studied in a related Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) list (Experiments 1 & 2) or a list of totally unrelated words (Experiment 2) and the other had been nonstudied. Semantic priming from the related DRM list occurred for nonstudied CIs (but not YAs) regardless of whether the CI received within-test priming from its studied related YA during the lexical decision task, though the effect in the absence of within-test priming averaged across experiments was only significant by a one-tailed test. Also averaged across experiments, repetition priming occurred for both studied CIs and YAs when they had been studied in related DRM lists whether or not there was also within-test priming from a nonstudied related yoked pairmate, though individual effects within the two experiments were sometimes not significant. Repetition priming boosted semantic priming from related DRM lists less for CIs than for YAs, similar to the finding that memory discriminability is poorer for CIs than for YAs in episodic recognition. This smaller repetition priming boost for CIs than for YAs occurred to the same degree when the CIs or YAs were studied in an unrelated list. When nonstudied CIs and YAs were totally unrelated to all previously studied items and separated by 3-7 items in the lexical decision task, aYA produced a small 16 msec priming effect for its CI, averaged across both experiments. The implications of these results for the activation account of the DRM false-memory effect and for single-prime versus multiple-prime long-term semantic priming effects are discussed. The online addendum may be downloaded from www.psychonomic.org/archive.     

Automatic and strategic effects in semantic priming: An examination of Becker’s verification model

Becker’s (1980) verification model, in conjunction with a two-strategy hypothesis, is cited as an alternative to a dual-process model (e.g., Posner & Snyder, 1975) of word recognition and semantic priming. Becket’s approach suggests that individuals can use either an “expectancy” or a “prediction” strategy in word recognition, and maintains that the verification model successfully predicts certain patterns of facilitation and inhibition in a semantic priming task that a dual-process model cannot. The present study demonstrated that when a long stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA = 1,000 msec) is used between prime and target, support is given to Becker’s findings, and to the verification model approach. However, at a short SOA (200 msec), no evidence is found for the hypothesized difference between strategic processes. The results are consistent with other findings (e.g., Neely, 1977) in showing that strategic factors in semantic priming are largely inoperative at short prime-target SOAs, and suggests that Becker’s model is not general enough to rule out some type of dual-process model.     

Can performance-feedback accuracy be improved? Effects of rater priming and rating-scale format on rating accuracy

Performance appraisal information is often used for employee feedback and development. Research has found that assessments that are global (i.e., based on broad aspects of performance) and comparative (i.e., explicit interratee comparisons) may be most accurate in terms of Cronbach's (1955) differential accuracy, a type of accuracy that is directly relevant to the provision of feedback. Unfortunately, a global-comparative assessment may not give recipients the most useful diagnostic feedback. In this experiment, an innovative rater-priming manipulation was developed and tested on a sample of 109 participants. The priming manipulation had the effect of improving differential accuracy and providing diagnostic feedback. A 2nd independent variable involving 2 different Behavioral Observation Scale formats also was investigated. Explanations of findings, limitations of this experiment, directions for future research, and implications for performance appraisal practice are discussed.     

How does visuomotor priming differ for biological and non-biological stimuli? A review of the evidence

Visuomotor priming occurs when our actions are influenced by observing a compatible or incompatible action. Here we ask whether visuomotor priming is specific to human, biological actions or generalises to non-biological movements, such as abstract shapes or robots. Reviewing the evidence indicates that priming occurs for both types of stimuli and emphasises the contributions of both bottom-up (e.g. stimulus saliency, appearance, kinematics) and top-down (e.g. attention and prior knowledge) factors. We propose a model suggesting that although bottom-up features play a critical role, the degree of difference in priming for biological versus non-biological stimuli can be ultimately shaped by top-down factors.     

Enhancement of hardening and thermal resistance of Mg–Sn-based alloys by addition of Cu and Al

Mg–Sn-based alloys are considered as a promising precipitation-hardening system for applications at elevated temperatures, but the hardening effect is not satisfactory owing to sluggish nucleation and rapid coarsening of the major Mg₂Sn lath precipitates. In this study, Cu and Al are added to a Mg–6Sn–1Mn base alloy. The age-hardening response and the microstructures of these modified alloys have been investigated and are compared to that of the base alloy. The additional elements are found to bring several beneficial effects to the alloys for applications at elevated temperatures. Firstly, a eutectic structure consisting of strong intermetallic phases, i.e. Mg₂Cu in the Mg–6Sn–1Mn–2Cu alloy and Al_0.93Cu_1.07Mg in the Mg–6Sn–1Mn–2Cu–2Al alloy, remains stable along the grain boundaries after solution and ageing heat treatments. Secondly, the precipitate density has been increased significantly and the precipitate size has been refined remarkably during ageing at 200?°C. Moreover, the growth of the precipitates is inhibited remarkably during the over-ageing period. Therefore, the age-hardening response and over-ageing resistance are notably improved.     

What's the use of being happy? Mood states, useful objects, and repetition priming effects

Two experiments involving 99 undergraduate participants sought to examine the influence of mood states on encoding speed within lexical decision and pronunciation tasks. Mood states were measured naturalistically in Experiment 1 and manipulated in Experiment 2. Stimuli consisted of nouns representing useful (e.g., food) and nonuseful (e.g., lint) objects. Mood states had no implications for initial encoding speed. However, when the same words were presented a 2nd time (i.e., repeated), happy individuals displayed a tendency to encode useful words faster than nonuseful ones. Thus, mood states influenced repetition priming on the basis of stimulus valence. The authors propose that happiness sensitizes individuals to useful or rewarding objects, which in turn creates a stronger memory trace for such stimuli in the future.